UK Paper 1: Ideologies (Liberalism, Conservatism and Socialism)

Question 1

what are the key liberal ideas around human nature, the state, society and the economy?

Answer 1

human nature:
Ls think that humans are fundamentally rational, and driven by self interest. it will often be in one’s own interest to help others. this belief is called “rationalism”
-importance of liberty: ability and right for one to make their own decisions; this is protected under the law.

the state:
the state is a necessary for protection of life, liberty and property. however it should be limited as it also has the power to remove liberty. Ls differ on how great a role the state should play.
the government also needs to be held accountable through democracy, though different strands disagree on how widely democracy should be implemented.

society:
is atomistic - made up of individuals rather than one cohesive unit. Ls believe in social justice - the belief that individuals are of equal value and that they should be treated impartially and fairly by society – to cover foundational and formal equality and equality of opportunity
Ls also believe in tolerance - the idea that

the economy:
liberals are capitalist to varying degrees: CLs and NLs are more inclined towards laissez-faire or free market capitalism, while MLs prefer keynesianism.

Question 2

what are the key views of mary wollstonecraft?

Answer 2

human nature:
rationalism defines both genders; intellectually men and women are fundamentally equal

the state:
monarchical state should be replaced by a republic, which enshrines women’s rights; formal equality

society:
society infantilises women and thus stifled female individualism

the economy:
a free-market economy would be energised by the enterprise of liberated women

Question 3

what are the key views of john locke?

Answer 3

human nature:
humans are rational and guided by self interest

the state:
state must be representative of the governed, and operate by consent. Social contract theory – society, state and government are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement.

society:
society predates the state. before governments there were natural societies and laws

the economy:
state policy should respect the “natural right” to private property and arbitrate effectvely between individuals competing for resources.

Question 4

what are the key views of john stuart mill?

Answer 4

human nature:
though fundamentally rational, human nature is not fixed. it is forever progressing to a higher level

the state:
state should proceed cautiously towards a representative democracy, while keeping mindful of minority rights

society:
the best society is one where people co-exist with tolerance and self improvement

the economy:
laissez-faire capitalism is vital to progress, individual enterprise and initiatve

Question 5

what are the key views of john rawls?

Answer 5

human nature:
humans are selfish but empathetic, valuing both individual liberty and the struggle of those around them

the state:
state should enable less fortunate individuals to advance, via public spending and public services

society:
the society most individuals would choose would be one where the condition of the poorest improved.

the economy:
free-market capitalism should be curbed by the state’s obligation to advance its poorest citizens.

Question 6

what are the key views of betty friedan?

Answer 6

human nature:
human nature has evolved in a way which disourages self-advancement among women.

the state:
state should legislate to prevent continued discrimination among women - formal equality

society:
society remains chauvinistic towards women, though women were complicit in their repression

the economy:
free market capitalism could be an ally of female emancipation, if allied to legislation removing sexual discrimination.

Question 7

what are the key divisions among liberals?

Answer 7

-CLs favour a free market and very limited state, so that individuals can be free from all restrictions (negative freedom or freedom to fail). the only role of the state should be to protect law and order
-MLs believe that the state can play a positive role in ensuring freedom, social justice and equality for all. this involves some intervention in the economy and welfare provision (positive freedom)

-CLS see democracy as a threat to the liberal values of individualism and freedom, while MLs see democracy as the only way to prevent a tyrannical government and to allow individuals to flourish and improve

-CLs believe that equality means individuals should be allowed to fail and succeed based on their own efforts and talents, while MLs argue that the state must intervene to create fairness and equality of opportunity (meritocracy)

Question 8

how do liberals agree on human nature?

Question 9

how do liberals disagreeon human nature?

Question 10

how do liberals agree on role of the state ?

Question 11

how do liberals disagree on role of the state?

Question 12

how do liberals agree on society?

Question 13

how do liberals disagree on society?

Question 14

how do liberals agree on the economy?

Question 15

how do liberals disagree on the economy?

Question 16

what are the the definitions of these key liberal terms?

Answer 16

Foundational equality

• Formal equality
• Equality of opportunity
• Social contract
• Meritocracy
• Mechanistic theory
• Tolerance
• Limited government
• Egoistical individualism
• Developmental individualism
• Negative freedom
• Positive freedom
• Laissez-faire capitalism
• Keynesianism
• Harm principle
• Minimal state
• Enabling state

Question 17

what are the key conservative ideas around human nature, the state, society and the economy?

Question 18

what are the key views of thomas hobbes?

Answer 18

thomas hobbes is a traditional conservative.

human nature:
humans are imperfect, needy and vulnerable - “the passions of men are more potent than their reason”
the state of nature is a “war of every man, against every man”

the state:
government should be authoritarian in order to protect humans from themselves and each other
a government protects the state of war. therefore an autocratic government is required, or conflict will ensue.

society:
humans will surrender their freedom in return for security
society cannot exist without a strong government
social contract - monarchs have a right to rule in return for security

the economy:
constructive and enduring economy cannot exist without a strong state providing security.

Question 19

what are the key views of edmund burke?

Answer 19

edmund burke is a traditional conservative.

human nature:
humans are able to conceive of perfection but are unable to achieve it.
burke came up with the idea of empiricism: this is the rejection of all abstract ideas and theory.

the state:
representatives should act on their own conscience, rather than be swayed by public opinion.
concept of change to conserve - if a state does not have the means to effectively change with the times, it is doomed to fail.

society:
tradition is important in soiety
society is made of “little platoons”
early form of paternalism; “noblesse oblige” (the wealthy should look after the poor)
concept of organic society - evolves naturally over time. attempts to manufacture change in soc are ill-advised.

the economy:
like with society, the economy should evolve naturally, with little outside intervention; disagrees with state intervention

Question 20

what are the key views of michael oakeshott?

Answer 20

human nature:
“humans are imperfect but not immoral”
rationalism oversimplifies complex problems
“humans prefer the known to the unknown”

the state:
“pragmatism, not dogmatism, should be the watchword of the state”
the state should be guided by tradition and practicality

society:
local communities are essential to a society’s survival

the economy:
disagrees with laissez-faire ideas to an extent; thinks free markets require a small degree of pragmatic state moderation

Question 21

what are the key views of robert nozick?

Answer 21

human nature:
agrees with locke’s idea of rationalism
humans have self-ownership

the state:
state should be limited to the most basic of functions. the state tends to have illegitimate power to enrich someone’s life at the expense of others

society:
state has no right to force someone to contribute to society

the economy:
strongly opposed to taxation: “taxation is state sponsored theft”
in favour of completely free markets

Question 22

what are the key views of ayn rand?

Answer 22

human nature:
came up with objectivism - stressing the importance of individual responsiblity for wellbeing
also agrees with rationalism
“maintain your life through your own efforts”

the state:
“welfarism is a flawed understanding of altruism”
advocated for “rolling back the state” in line with thatcher’s laissez-faire ideas
the state’s main purpose is to “defend borders and free markets”

society:
society is atomistic - made up of individuals rather than being one cohesive unit. embraced negative freedom in line with this philosophy
no societal obligation should be placed on an individual
society will thrive if everyone exercises individual responsibility

the economy:
advocated for the right to income and property, without welfare tax
laissex-faire free market economics

Question 23

how do conservatives agree on human nature?

Answer 23

all strands except for neoliberals agree on the concept of human imperfection.
Cs believe in a hierarchical, organic society that protects them from their own inherent imperfection
humans seek security and prefer the known to the unknown
if the New Right strand is to be considered as a coherent blend of neoliberal ECONOMIC policy but NEOCONSERVATIVE ideas of human nature and society, then conservatism is united on human nature

Question 24

how do conservatives disagree on human nature?

Answer 24

some tension among TCs about the degree to which humans are flawed. burke and oakeshott believe that humans are imperfect, but ultimately moral; hobbes, on the other hand, believes that humans are inherently ruthless and power-hungry.

more important difference is disagreements between NR NLs (ayn and rand) and the other strands, over the concept of rationalism.

if we are to consider neoliberalism and neoconservatism as separate ideologies, conservatism is ultimately divided on human nature

Question 25

how do conservatives agree on role of the state?

Answer 25

all conservatives agree on the need for a state to varying degrees

Question 26

how do coservatives disagree on role of the state?

Question 27

how do conservatives agree on society?

Question 28

how do conservatives disagree on society?

Question 29

how do conservatives agree on the economy?

Question 30

how do conservatives disagree on the economy?

Question 31

what are the main divisions of socialism?

Answer 31

revolutionary socialism: developed from the work of marx and engels, sometimes known as marxism. argues socialist values cannot exist alongside capitalism, and that a spontaneous revolution is required to create a communist society.

democratic socialism:
argues socialism can be introduced gradually via the current institutions like elections. private enterprise is eventually replaced with mass nationalisation, led by a socialist elite. this idea is commonly associated with beatrice webb.

social democracy:
emerged after ww2. associated with anthony crosland. it consists of higher state spending, increased welfare system and social justice. emphasis on equality of opportunity, rather than equality of outcome.

third way:
emerged in late 80s/90s in response to success of neoliberal ideas. associated with anthony giddens. mixes neoliberal ideas with higher welfare spending to achieve equality of opportunity. blair and bill clinton are also linked to these ideas.

Question 32

what are the key views of marx (and engels)?

Answer 32

human nature:
humans are social and naturally cooperative. human nature is malleable: therefore is corrupted by capitalism, causing greed
social class is central to all of human history: conflict between proletariat and bourgeoisie.

role of the state:
state will play very large role during transition from capitalism to communism (this transition is socialism.

society:
the proletariat will inevitably overthrow capitalism.
class struggle arises from property ownership. historical materialism/dialetic change. the proletariat will eventually become aware of their exploitation: “class consciousness”

the economy:
socialist state enforces public ownership. eventually under communism there will be distribution of goods and services according to need.

Question 33

what are the key views of rosa luxembourg?

Answer 33

human nature:
human nature is originally fraternal. therefore fraternity and altruism often flourish in working class communities, in spite of capitalism. she thought evolutionary socialism was misguided, becauase it will not remove capitalism.

role of the state:
rejected the need for a vanguard to lead a revolution, as proposed by lenin. shares socialist ideas of state ownership, followed by a transition to communism
rejects marx’s idea of a dictatorship of the proletariat - luxembourg believes elections and free press are consistently required.

society:
disagreed with marx’s idea of historical materialism. believed revolutions can occur is less economically developed societies.
luxembourg believed it is impossible to cleanse capitalism through reform - exploitation is a fundamental feature of capitalism.

the economy:
current capitalist world system is more resilient than was predicted by marx. overthrowing it requires determination from proletariat.

Question 33

what are the key views of beatrice webb?

Answer 33

human nature:
revolution would damage human nature even more than capitalism already has; “revolutions are chaotic, inefficient and counter-productive”. luxembourg believed in the “inevitability of gradualness”. socialism was an inevitable consequence of a democratic society. universal suffrage was to seal this process.

role of the state:
the state produces an educated socalist elite - this is a highly trained group of technocrats, that administrate the state.
the state will not “wither away” as marx said, but instead expand. this is necessary in order to achieve socialism.

society:
the poverty and inequality in capitalism leads to a regressive society - a “race to the bottom”

the economy:
a chaotic capitalist economy will gradually be replaced by common ownership through nationalisation.

Question 34

what are the key views of anthony crosland?

Answer 34

social democrat - still argued for equality of outcome, but this should happen by reforming the existing capitalist system. wealth should be distributed across society through free-market state intervention.

human nature:
human nature has a sense of fairness: there is an innate objection to inequalities of outcome.
“marx had little or nothing to offer the contemporary socialist”
crosland rejected the idea of historical materialism. he argued that contradictions in capitalism could not drive social change.

role of the state:
comprehensive schools would end social segregation that is seen in selective (grammar) schools, leading to equality of opportunity.
crosland believed that managed capitalism could deliver social justice and equality

society:
society is increasingly complex, with new emerging
social groups such as meritocratic managers and classless technocrats. but crosland argued “equality of opportunity and social mobility are not enough”

the economy:
mixed economy with some public ownership (keynesianism) will provide the finance for further public spending.
state managed capitalism is capable of providing full employment.
equality of outcome can be achieved through a strong welfare state and public services.
crosland said that the 1945 labour government proved that the existing state can bring about radical socialist change.

Question 35

what are the key views of anthony giddens?

Answer 35

human nature:
human nature changes along with changing economic conditions. giddens agrees that humans have an innate sense of fairness, but also that we have a sharp sense of individual aspiration. giddens recognised and accepted individualism.
the free market can be used, but its damaging effects on fraternity and community must be weakened.

role of the state:
the existing liberal state should be improved. power should be decentralised, and political participation should be encouraged.

society:
giddens said that “left wing governments are doomed to disappoint, more so than those of the right, since the left aspires to reshape society.”
equal opportunity and social inclusivity are priorities.
society has undergone an embourgeoisement - egalitarians must harness rather than deny these forces.

the economy:
neoliberal economics propelled by privatisation and deregulation will provide huge tax yields.

Question 36

how do socialists agree over human nature (common humanity/collectivism)?

Answer 36

common humanity:
-all socialists believe that humans are naturally inclined to work together in cooperation, to produce the best results for society as a whole. there is also a belief in fraternity and community alongside this. socialists find pleasure and fulfillment in work that focuses on collectivism rather than individualism and competition.
-all revolutionary socialists believe in overthrowing capitalism.
-all evolutionary socialists believe in working with the existing capitalist institutions to achieve a version of socialism.

Question 37

how do socialists disagree over human nature (common humanity/collectivism)?

Answer 37

common humanity:
-revolutionary socialists (marx, luxembourg) are the most crtical of the effect of capitalism on common humanity; becomes twisted and self-centred.
-there are also divisions within RS; luxembourg believes that strong senses of common humanity can be found in many working class communities.
-while RS believe that capitalism must be overthrown through a revolution, DS (webb) believe that capitalism should be gradually removed with democratic means.
-SD and TW (crosland and giddens) are much less pessimistic about the effect of capitalism on human nature. they believe capitalism can be reformed (SD) or even harnessed (TW) to
-TW accepts individual aspiration as an aspect of human nature, in a way that the other strands do not

collectivism:
RS, DS and SD all believe in the idea of collectivism - the concept that the interests and rights of society are more important than any individual.