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Question 1

What is the role of the immune system?

Answer 1

To protect our body by scanning pathogens for the presence of self or non self antigens, if non self antigens are identified then initiating an immune response.

Question 2

What is a pathogen

Answer 2

An agent causing disease

Question 3

What is an antigen

Answer 3

Agent that triggers an immune response

Question 4

Self antigens

Answer 4

Found on the surface of a cell, marks a cell as “self” preventing the immune system from destroying it.In vertebrates self antigens often take form of the MHC markers.

Question 5

MHC class 1 markers

Answer 5

expressed on all nucleated cells in the body (arent found on red blood cells since they dont have a nucleus)

Question 6

MHC class 2 markers

Answer 6

Only found on specialised cells in the body

Question 7

What can happen in regards to organ donating with MHC class markers

Answer 7

MHC markers differ on individiuals, so for examples like organ donation there is a possibillity the body will identify the antigens as non self intiating an immune response.This is why organ patients must continously take immunosepressants in order to prevent the body from attacking donated organ.

Question 8

What is a non self antigen

Answer 8

Molecule from outside the body that is recognised by the immune system as foreign.Initiating an immune response and attack.for example if a bacterium enters the body, the immune system will recognise the bacterial antigens as non self and initiate an immune response.

Question 9

What is an autoimmune disease?

Answer 9

where an individuals immune system becomes self attacking attacks self antigen cells.Examples include lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.

Question 10

What is a disease?

Answer 10

When pathogens effect the normal functioning of cells, inhibiting an individuals quality of life

Question 11

What do allergies refer too?

Answer 11

occurs when an allergen (acts as the antigen) is recognised the by the immune system as non self intiating a strong immune response.This unwarranted response that they intitate is non as an allergic reaction(overreaction of the immune system to non pathogenic antigen)

Question 12

What are cellular pathogens,name the examples

Answer 12

Have cellular structure and are living organisms.
include;
-Bacteria
-Worms
-Fungi
-Protozoa

Question 13

Bacteria description (Draw simple diagram)

Answer 13

Unicellular prokaryote that can infect almost any part of the body,causes disease through the production of toxins and enzymes which either effect the functioning of the cell or cause cell death.Bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission.

Examples include: Neissaria meningitdis causing meningistis and clostridum tetanai causing tetnus

Question 14

What is fungi (Draw simple diagram)

Answer 14

Eukaryotic organisms including yestes and moulds that contain large branches called hyphae.Fungi reproduce both asexually and sexually via spore formation.

Examples include thrush,ringworm and atheltes foot

Question 15

What are worms (Draw simple diagram)

Answer 15

Multicellular vertebrate parasites whose development include eggs,larval and adult stages.Reproduce sexually via a complex life cycle.

Examples include tapeworm,Roundworm

Question 16

What are protozoa (draw simple diagram)

Answer 16

unicellular eukaryotes that can be free living or parasitic.Have various modes of action which include some that can inhibit nucleic acid synthesis,protein synthesis and various stages of cellular respiration.Reproduce through both asexual and sexual reproduction.

Examples include plosmodium causing malaria.

Question 17

What are non cellular pathogens, name the examples

Answer 17

Have no cellular structure and are non living
includes;
-Viruses
-Prions

Question 18

What is a virus? (Draw a simple diagram)

Answer 18

Infectious agent composed of either DNA or RNA inside a protein coat which is also known as a capsid.In some instance the protein coat is surronded by a lipid envelope.Do not individiually reproduce however they hyjack the host cell,inserting their genetic material using the host cells machinery to replicate.Can cause disease throught the lysis of cells during viral replication and also through the over stimulation of the immune system leading to organ damage.

Examples include rhinovrisu causing the common cold,influenze causing the flue,sar-cov2 causing covid,Ebola virus causing ebola

Question 19

how do viruses cause lysis and what does it do?

Answer 19

After the accumulation of viruses inside a cell and the weakening of the cell’s cytoskeleton, the cell bursts, releasing the viral particles into the extracellular environment. Therefore, every time viruses burst from cells, there is a sudden increase in the number of extracellular viruses.1Conversely, bacteria are able to continuously replicate in the extracellular environment, resulting in a smooth exponential curve.2

Question 20

What are prions? (Draw a simple diagram)

Answer 20

Abnormally folded proteins that have the ability to induce abnormal folding in other proteins.Only occur in mammals effecting neural structures.Currently the only known infectious agents that dont contain nucleic acids.Examples include mad cow disease and creutzfeldt;-jakob disease.

Question 21

What are intracellular and extracellular pathogen threats?

Answer 21

Extracellular threat:Threats found outside the cell that can interfere with its functioning

Intracellular threat:Threats found within a cell that can impact its funcitoning

Question 22

What is the first line of defence?

Answer 22

component of the innate immune system it provides physical,chemical and microbiological barriers to protect against pathogenic invasion

Question 23

Name the physical and chemical barriers of the first line of defence in plants

Answer 23

Physical
-Thick bark
-Waxy cuticle of leaves
-Formation of galls (abrormal bumps) to reduce pathogen spread
-Presence of thrones and trichomes (fine outgrowths) to deter insects and grazers
-closing of stomata to prevent pathogens being uptaken during carbon dioxide uptake

Chemical
-Phenols; secreted by wounded plants repelling or killing pathogens
-Chitinases;enzymes that have anti fungal functions
-defensis;small peptides toxic to pathogens and fungi

Question 24

Name the physical,chemical and microbiological barriers of the first line of defence in humans

Answer 24

Physical
-Intact/healthy skin, protects internal environment from external pathogens
-Mucous secretions and the hairs in the respiratory system that trap organisms and the cillia that sweeos them away into our gastrointestinal trap where they are killed

chemical
-Presence of lysozomes in tears and saliva that destroy cell walls
-Acidic sweat that destroys pathogen growth
-Stomach acid that destroys pathogens ingested
-Antibacterial compounds in earwax
-Antibacterial compounds in semen
-low pH of Vagina

microbiological
-Presenc of non pathogenic bacteria known as natural flora that can prevent the growth of pathogens and bacteria by competeing witht hem for space and resources.Found on the skin, in the lower gastrointestinal trap and vagina.

Question 25

What is the second line of defence?

Answer 25

Component of the innate immune system characterised by the non-specific response to pathogen by molecules and cells.Made up of cellular and non cellular components.

Question 26

What are the cellular components of the second line of defence?

Answer 26

Made up of white blood cells also known as leukocytes, examples include phagocytes,neutrophil,Macrophague,Dendretic cell and antigen presenting cells

Question 27

what are leukocytes?

Answer 27

group of blood cells responsible for protecting the body against pathogens also known as white blood cells.

Question 28

What are phagocytes?

Answer 28

Phagocyte cells include;Neutrophil,Macrophage and dendretic cells

:Phagocytes are cells that engage in phagocytosis,engulfing a cell.Additionally,Macrophages and Dendretic cells are also antigen presenting cells, meaning they present fragments of the pathogen after phagocytosis on their surface as MHC class 2 markers for antigen presentation in the 3rd line of defence.

Question 29

What is a Neutrophil?

Answer 29

Most common type of leukocyte in the body,engages in phagocytosis as well as the release of cytokines (used to communicate in the immune system)

Question 30

What is a macrophague?

Answer 30

type of leukocyte found throughout the body which acts as both a phagocyte or as a antigen presenting cell

Question 31

What are dendretic cells?

Answer 31

Type of leukocyte that engages in both phagocytosis and antigen presentation.

Question 32

what are antigen presenting cells.

Answer 32

Made up of macrophagues and dendretic cells they display antigens consumed by pathogens on their surface interacting with the adaptive immune system.

Question 33

What is the phagocytosis process? (Draw simple diagram too show)

Answer 33

1.Pathogen enters the body
2.pathogen fuses with lysozome
3.Lysozome releaes ensymes that begin to degranulate pathogen
4.Pathogen is brocken down into small gfragments
5.fragments are displayed on antigen presenting cells surface

Question 34

What are cytokines

Answer 34

signalling molecule released by cells typically within the immune system aiding in the communication between immune cells helping protect against pathogens.

Question 35

What are Natural killer cells?

Answer 35

type of leukocyte responsible for the recognition and destruction of damaged or infected host cells.
If their is insufficient binding of killer inhibitory receptor to MHC class 1 markers, cell death is initiated.

-Killer inhabitory receptor:examines the surface of cells for MHC class 1 markers

-Killer activation receptor:Binds to certain molecules which appears on molecules undergoing cellular stress

Question 36

What are mast cells?

Answer 36

Type of leukocyte that resides in connective tissues around the body and is responsible for releasing histamine as they degranulate during allergic and inflammatory responses

Question 37

what are esoinophils?

Answer 37

Large granulated cells containing various toxic chemicals that can cause cell damage or death.They are typically used on pathogens that are too large for phagocytosis.

Question 38

What do the Non cellular components of the second line of defence refer too?

Answer 38

other molecules (apart from leukocytes) and processes that play a vital role in the second line of defence.
Examples include;
-interferons
-Complement proteins
-Membrane attack complex
-fevers
-Inflammatory response

Question 39

What are interferons?

Answer 39

A cytokine released by virally infected cells that increases the viral resistance of neighbouring uninfected cells,preventing the spread of the virus.

Question 40

What are complement proteins?

Answer 40

Number of different proteins found in the blood that opsonise,cause lysis and attract pahgocytes to invading pathogens.In the presence of certain pathogens complement proteins interact with eachother in a reaction called the complement cascade.

Question 41

Elements of the complement cascade?

Answer 41

-Opsonisation:Complement proteins stick on the outside surface of pathogens making it easier for the cells of the immune system such as phagocytes to recognise them as foreign and initiate phagocytosis

-Chemotaxis;Complement proteins gather near pathogen attracting phagocytes too it making it more likely too be destroyed

-Lysis;Complement proteins join together on the surface of pathogens forming a membrane attack complex which creates pores in pathogens membrane,this destroys pathogen via lysis causing a sudden influx of fluid making the pathogen burst

Question 42

What is the membrane attack complex

Answer 42

Pore formed by complement proteins in the cell membrane of a pathogen, which causes an influx of fluid and pressure causing it too burst.

Question 43

What is a fever?

Answer 43

temporary increase in body temperature.An innate response to a potential infection as many pathogens cannot survive at the elevated temperatures created by a fever.Also thought to help the immune system by activating certain proteins in the body boosting the bodies defences.Important to note prolonged fevers can be detrimental to the body,since our cells are no longer operating at their optimal temperature.

Question 44

What are the steps in the inflammatory response?

Answer 44

The process of inflammation is used to increase blood flow to the site of injury bringing a greater number of immune cells and components to clear debris and fight pathogens.

Intiation:In response to injury macrophages situated in tissue become activated and along with damaged cells release cytokines.Additionally mast cells present degranulate and release histamine.

Vasvodilation:Histamine released from mast cells travel to nearby blood cells and bind to specific receptors causing vasvodilation.this causes blood cells to widen increasing blood flow, this is what causes the swelling,redness and warmth.Additionally the formation of gaps in the vessel wall increase its permeability to the cells of the immune system.

Migration:Vasvodilation and the increased leakiness of blood cells allow for a number of innante immune system cells to leave the blood stream and enter the site of injury.Some of these cells include; Phagocytes that phagocytise pathogens and complement proteins that attract pathogens and make it easier for phagocytes to destroy them.

Question 45

What is the third line of defence and what are its 2 unique features?

Answer 45

also known as the specific immune response or adaptive immune response is specific and slower acting.Intiated by the presenting of non self antigens to speicific immune cells of the adaptive immune system.

The 2 unique features of the third line of defence include its;

-Specificity:responds to each pathogen in a unique and tailored manner.
-Immunological memory:Third line of defence results in the production of cells that allow the body to respond to future infections by a previously encountered pathogen quickly and effectively.

Question 46

Whats the role of antigen presentation? Describe the process

Answer 46

Antigen presentation:A key process in the intiation of the adaptive immune response involves the selection of the T lymphocyte and T helper cell.Occurs in the lymph nodes

1.After Phagocytosis APCs (Macrophages and dendretic cells) that display the pathogens antigens on its surface travel to lymph nodes via the lymphatic system

2.Here, T helper cells use specialised proteins called CD4+ which recognise the shape of antigen,finding a complementary T helper cell

3.Once a T helper cell is found it secretes cytokines to create many more T helper cells to help identify which active pathway it will undergo

Question 47

What is the humoral response process?

Answer 47

(occurs in bodily fluids such as blood)
1.B cell with complementary shape to pathogen is identified and is said to be “Selected”
2.T Helper cell selected in antigen presentation releases cytokines intiating clonal expansion of B cell and differentiation
3.B cell differentiates into B memory cells vital for longlasting immunity and B plasma cells which secrete antibodies
4.Antibodies specific to pathogen are released

Question 48

What are antibodies? (Draw a diagram of one)

Answer 48

Antibodies that have been secreted into the blood will come into contact with pathogen that was originally presented to the selected B cell.Due to the process of clonal expansion,these antibodies are specific and have 2 antigen binding sites that is complementary to the antigens located on the pathogen meaning it can bind to 2 antigens.
Antibodies released by plasma cells are proteins with quaternery structure.They are composed of four poly peptide chains,including 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains arranged in a “y” shape.These 2 heavy chains are joined together via a disulphide bond (strong covalent bond between 2 sulphur atoms).Each antibody has 2 regions, the stem which is known as the constant region and the top of the arms known as the variable region.

Question 49

What are the types of antibodies?

Answer 49

IgA: found in mucus,breast milk and saliva

IgD:imortant for activation of other immune cells

IgE:Protects against Parasitic worms.Also responsible for allergic reactions

IgG:Most common antibody found in the body,able to cross across placenta into fetus

IgM:First type of antibody produced by plasma cells in response to infection.

Question 50

What are the key functions of Antibodies?

Answer 50

-Neutralisation:Antibodies can block the sites that pathogens use to attack host cells and can block active site of toxins

-Aggnulation: Antibodies can bind together on 2 seperate pathogens forming large antigen-antibody complexes, making it easier for phagocytes to recognise them as non self and destroy them

-Immobilisation:Antibodies can restict pathogen movement through the formation of large antigen-antibody complexes

-opsonisation:Antibodies can directly bind to pathogen surface making it easier to phagocytise

-Activation of complement proteins:Antibodies can attach to surface of pathogen activating complement proteins cause a membrane attack complex too form and lysis to occur.

Question 51

Cell-mediated response protein

Answer 51

(occurs in infected body/skin cells)
1.Naive T cell with complementary shape to Pathogen is identifed and selected
2.T helper cell selected in antigen presentation stimulates clonal expansion of Naive T cell via the release of cytokiness
3.Cytokines released also stimulate differentiation where T memory cells via to long lasting immunity are made and cytotoxic T cells are made
4.Cytoctoxic T cells leave lymph nodes travel to site of infection initiating apoptosis via the release of chemicals like preferen

Question 52

What is immunnological memory?

Answer 52

-B memory cells contribute to immulogoical memory by rapidly dividing and producing plasma cells that are antibody producing when they encounter an antigen that matches their receptor.B memory cells also create immulogicial memory by constantly secreting low amounts of their antibody, so a person who is immune to a pathogen will always have some trace of antibodies in their blood.

-T memory proliferate rapidly into T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells upon stimulation by an antigen presenting cell that is presenting a previously encountered antigen.

Question 53

What is the lymphatic system?

Answer 53

large network of vessels throughout the body in which lymph flows.Its 2 man functions are too act as a transport system for antigen presenting cells and to serve as the location of clonal selection.

Question 54

What is lymph?

Answer 54

Pale fluid that flows through the lymphatic system that contains a high concentration of leukocytes.

Question 55

What are primary lymphoid tissues?

Answer 55

Responsible for the production of and maturation of lymphocytes.Includes bone marrow and the thymus.

Question 56

Where are B and T lymphocytes formed

Answer 56

The production of B and T lymphocytes occurs in the primary lymphoid tissues like the bone marrow, which is primarily found inside long bones such as the femur and humerous.While B lymphocytes stay in the bone marrow to mature further T lymphocytes move to the thymus to mature.

Question 57

What are the secondary lymphoid tissues?

Answer 57

components of the lymphatic system that are responsible for the maintenance of mature lymphosites and the activation of the adaptive immune response.Includes lymph nodes (i.e tonsils) and the spleen.

-in these lymph nodes mature lymphocytes scan passing lymph for the presence of pathogens or antigen presenting cells .If the foreign antigen mataches the receptors f specific lymphocytes then these lymphocytes undergo clonal selection.

Question 58

Why do our lymph nodes swell when we are sick?

Answer 58

many lymphocytes to be produced when sick, which leads to the characterised swelling that occurs in the lymph nodes when sick.

Question 59

What is clonal selection?

Answer 59

Process by which T or B lymphocytes encounter an antigen with complementary shape and therefore generate many copies of themselves.

Question 60

How does the lymphatic system work as a transport network?

Answer 60

Lymphatic drainage:Our blood leakiness is increased in the inflammatory response in order to let leukocytes flow to site of injury.To prevent this leaking into our tissues lymphatic capilaries carry away lymph once it enters and carries it into lymphatic system to lymph nodes.

Lymphatic flow:Small lymphatic capilaries throughout the body gradually join together to form larger vessels that contain an increasing amount of lymph.These vessels have thin walls and rely on surronding muscle movements to help push the lymph fluid through the lymphatic system.Its important to note that the heart is note responsible for pumping lymph.Additionally, lymph vessels feature a number of one way valves these ensure the pumping of lymph only flows in 1 direction away from tissue and into the lymph nodes.

Lymphatic surveillance:fluid drained from tissues arrives at lymph nodes via affarrent lymphatic vessels. lymph travels through clusters of B and T cells,these antigen presenting cells are likely too match with a lymphcyte that has a matching antigen binding site and stimulate the process of clonal selection.If the adaptive immune system is initiated antibodies and activated cytotoxic T cells will be transported in the lymph away from the lymph nodes via efferent lymphatic vessels.

This lengthy system of transportation around the lymphatic system can be too blame for the active immune systems slower response

Question 61

Describe the types of immunity that can be developed
-Natural active immunity
-Natural passive immunity
-Aritificial active immunity
-Artificial passive immunity

Answer 61

Natural active immunity:person developing their own antibodies and memory cells without any medical intervention.through the persons own adaptive immune system

Natural passive immunity:Person developing immunity through antibodies from an external source without the help of medical intervention (i.e breastfeeding which gives the mothers antibodies to the baby and the placenta which allows antibodies developed by the mum to enter the fetuses bloodstream via the umbilical cord)

Aritificial active immunity:When a persons immune system creates antibodies and memory cells after the help of medicial intervention (i.e through vaccination)

When antibodies are created by an aritifical external source and then given to a patient (i.e antivenom).Antibody treatments do increase the presence of antibodies in the blood however over time they degranulate and immunity dissapears, this is because of the lack of memory cells.

Question 62

What are vaccines?

Answer 62

Vaccines work too form Aritificial active immunity.Vaccine-medical treatment that typically contains antigens designed to stimulate an individuals immune system to create immunity to pathogen without actually causing disease.This allows a persons adaptive immune system to create the antibodies and memory cells targeted against the pathogen.Allowing for if the person were to re-encounter the pathogen to have the immunological memroy and antibodies to rapidly attack it preventing the pathogen to be able to cause disease.

Question 63

What are the 2 phases in which vaccines work?

Answer 63

Primary immune response:After a personns first vaccine their is a delay in their adaptive immune response, eventually a response occurs in whihch a moderate amount of antibodies and memory cells are produced

Secondary immune response:When an individual gets the second vaccine their immune system uses the memory cells previously generated to activate a much larger and faster production of antibodies and even more memory cells too quickly attack the pathogen.This helps create even longer lasting immunity.

Question 64

What is a vaccination program?

Answer 64

Series of vaccinations designed to create long lasting immunity to a disease also known as a vaccination schedule.

Question 65

What are booster vaccines?

Answer 65

Vaccination given to a person much after they completed the initial vaccination program to enhance their exisistng long lasting immunity.Booster vaccines help stimulate memory cells that may be dying due to the long length of time that has passed, strengthening an individuals immunity to a disease.

Question 66

What is herd immunity?

Answer 66

Protection against a disease conferred to non-immune individuals happens due to a large number of the population being immune to a disease,normally occurs due to high vaccination rates.

Diseases are transmitted through a population through a pathogen spreading,If a large portion of the population has immunity then the pathogen cannot spread or eadily reproduce through the population.This therefore protects people who arent immune.

Question 67

Name these definitions
-infectious disease
-Non infectious disease
-Contagious disease

Answer 67

Infectious disease:illness caused by pathogen

Non infectious disease:an illness not caused by a pathogen

Contagious disease:Illness caused by pathogen that can be spread between different people.

Question 68

what is an emerging disease?

Answer 68

Infectious disease new to human population or that is rapidly increasing in incidence.Emerging diseases are diseases that have not occured in humans before, have but only previously effected small areas,or have occured throughout history but have never previosuly been recognised as being caused by a pathogen)

examples include;
-Sars-cov2 (COVID-19)
-2009 pandemic influenza
-Acquired immunodefficency syndrome (AIDS)

Question 69

What is an re-emerging disease?

Answer 69

Infectious disease that was previously under control but is now increasing in incidience

examples include;
-Ebola
-Measles
-Malaria
-Cholera

Question 70

Name these definitions
-incidence
-virulance
-contagiousness
-outbreak

Answer 70

Incidence:frequency of disease in population

Virulance:Its potential to cause disease or serious harm

Contagiousness:How easily it spreads through population

Outbreak:sudden and unexpected increase in the occurence of a disease

Question 71

What are some factors that contribute to the emergence or re-emergence of diisease?

Answer 71

-Evolution of causative organism (pathogen evolving to become stronger or more virulant)

-Globalisation and travel (disease can spread)

-Increased exposure between animals and humans (Zoonosis is a disease caused by pathogen that has spread from animal to human, many emerging diseases come from animal resorvior.

-Increasing human population:Increased density increases the likelyhood of disease spreading

-Changing technology

-Insufficient vaccination of population:Previously managed diseases can re-emerge if theres not enough people vaccinated, this stems from a loss of herd immunity.

Question 72

name these definitions
-Epidemic
-Pandemic
-endemic

Answer 72

Epidemics:involves a sudden widespread increase in the ocurrence of a disease among a specific location at a specific time.

Pandemics:Epidemics that have spread to different continents and countries of the world.Pandemics effect a greater number of people and are much harder to control compared to epidemics.

Endemic:when a disease occurs at a reltivly constant baseline level within a population.

Question 73

Ebola description

Answer 73

(Ebola virus) re-emerging disease believed to have been caused by zoonosis, with bats being the natural resoivor responsible for many instances of human infection

Question 74

Measles description

Answer 74

caused by the morbillivirus pathogen a re-emerging diseases thought to be caused by a loss of heard immunity through lack of vaccination rates

Question 75

Malaria description

Answer 75

Re-emerging disease caused by plasmodium pathogen,through the evoultion of drug resistance, that has lead to mosquitos being able to transfer disease.

Question 76

Cholera description

Answer 76

Re-emerging disease caused by pathogen vibrio cholerea, occured through evolution of new more virulent strain.

Question 77

Coronavirus description

Answer 77

Emerging disease caused by Sars-cov2 pathogen, suspected to have occured through zoonosis with global travel spreading it arround the world.

Question 78

2009 influenza description

Answer 78

Emerging disease, caused by swine origin influenza virus,thought to be from zoonosis between Pigs and humans

Question 79

AIDS description

Answer 79

Emerging disease,caused by the HIV pathogen,believed to originate in non human primates,increased dense populations,global travel,medical treatments and through blood spread and multiple sex partners

Question 80

How did european colonisation effect aboriginal people and why was the effect so virulent?.

Answer 80

-Introduced diseases like smallpox,chickenpox,influenza,tuberclosis and measles
-Due to lack of natural active immunity developed through childbirth and natural passive immunity from mother, aboriginal people were vulnerable
-there lack of knowledge and experience and the fact they were allowed acces to medical help or allowed to peform medical practices meant they had no access to help and were more effected by it.
-Pushed away from homes into denser populations, pathogen could easily spread,overall health was also deminshed by little access to food and water

Question 81

What are the modes of disease transmission?

Answer 81

Pathogens rely on 5 modes of transmission to move from infected to non-infected host these include; airborne transmission,droplet transmission,direct physical contact,indirect physical contact and feacol oral transmission.

Question 82

What are the key strategies used in disease control?

Answer 82

Prevention;
-Improving hygiene and sanitation
-Using antiseptic and siinfectants to sanitise
-ensuring acess to clean food and water
-wearing PPE equipment
-Vaccination,if it exsists
-Lockdown of area/restrictions

screening
-Routine testing to see disease preveleance within population, so health workers can see who is effected
-Analyse what medication is popular during time to know what diseases are most common

Quarantine and isolation:
-Once someone is ill or may become ill isolating them froom others in population

identification of pathogen:
-allows us to know best way to combat it

Identify modes of transmission:
-Allows us to mitigate spread

treat infected peoples:
-Allows us to control and mitigate spread

Question 83

Ways to identify pathogens

Answer 83

Physical
-Scientists can view pathogens under a microscope

Phenotypic
Selective media-An agar plate is designed to only allow certain pathogens to grow and multiply this allows them to test for the presence in a sample

Biochemical test panel-Series of tests designed to specify a samples genus and species allowing us to understad key characteristics about them identifying the pathogen

Immunological
Serology-Diagnosis of disease based on the presence of antibodies or antigens on their surface.examples include ELISA (ensyme linked immunoloical assay) which has 4 methods direct,indirect,sandwhich and competitive.

Molecular
Hybridisation-Based detection;Labelled segments of genetic material that are complementary to a pathogens genetic material are added to sample, if a signal is generated it means the pathogen is present

Whole-genome sequenceing:allows us to know key detail about a pathogen.

Question 84

Sandwhich ELISA(enzyme linked immunological assay) method process

Answer 84

1.Antibodies specific to certain pathogen are attached to agar plate
2.The serum sample that is been tested is then added to the agar plate,resulting in any antigens present to bind to the antibodies previously added
3.A second direction antibody-linked to a colour changing enzyme is added to the plate binding to any of the antigen-antibody complexes present.
4.Substrate is then added reacting with enzyme in the second antibody which creates a colour change, this indicated whether the pathogen is present

Question 85

What is immunotherapy?

Answer 85

Immunotherapy is a form of medical treatment that modulates the functioning of the immune system in order to treat disease.Does this by typically amplifying or reducing the immune response.

Question 86

Name these deffinitions
-Active immunotherapies
-Supression immunotherapies

Answer 86

-Active immunotherapies aim to induce or amiplify an immune response
-supression immunotherapies that aim to reduce or prevent an immune response.

Question 87

Name some eamples of immunotherapy

Answer 87

Dendretic cell therapy:Involves the priming of dendretic cells (phagocyte and APC) with tumour associated antigens (TAAs) to facilitate the activation of lymphocytes (B and T cells), priming hem to kill any cells with the tumour antigen.This priming can be achieved by the vaccination of TAAs or removing dendretic cells from body and priming them with TAAs before infusing them back into patient.

CAR-T therapy:Involves the modification of T cells to recognise and destroy cancer cells.t cells are extracted form patient and scientists add a gene coding for an antigen receptor to its DNA.This protein then gets synthesised by the cell and inserted into its membrane allowing it to recognise cancer cells.These cells now have Chimeran antigen receptors and are inserted back into the patient.

Antibody therapy:Creation and use of antibodies to stimulate and enhance the function of the immune system.Antibodies used in antibody therapy are typcally monoclonal antiboides.

Cytokine therapy:Involves the use of immune signalling molecules like interferons and interleukins to modulate the effect of the immune system.

Question 88

What are monoclonal antibodies?

Answer 88

Identical laborartory made antibodies produced by plasma cell clones.monoclonal antibodies bind to specific antigens due to their specificity they can be used to target specific types or parts of cells for a variety of theraputic reasons.for example monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer due to their ability to recognise and distinguish between cancerious or self recognition cells.

Question 89

How are monoclonal antibodie produced?

Answer 89

1.Scientists identify and isolate antigen present on target cell ,typically it is the antigen causing disease that is selected.
2.Via vaccination antigen is given too mouse, who undergoes a immune response producing a B lymphocyte that matches the antigen, scientists extract this B lymphocyte from the Mouse spleen
3.B lymphocyte is then removed and fused with myeloma cells to frorm a hybridomen.Myeloma are chosen over vitro because B lymphocytes do not grow well in vitro whereas they do in myeloma which gives them the ability to grow alot and produce large quanities of anitbodies.
4.Hybridomas with appropriate antibodies are chosen and cloned resulting in mass antibody production
5.Antibodies are collected and purified given back to the patient

Question 90

What are myeloma cells?

Answer 90

Rapidly dividing cancerous plasma cells which are fused with extracted B cells from mice to produce hybridomas.

Question 91

what is cancer and how are monoclonal antibodies used in its treatment?

Answer 91

Cancer is caused by the uncontrolled and unregulated replication of cells that then invade other parts of the body.The development of cancer is often cause via mutations in the cancer cells DNA that allow it too bypass regulatory checkpoints of the cell cycle and provide it with survival advantages.Monoclonal antibodies can be used as an activation immunotherapy to help the immune system recognise and kill cancerous cells.They’re specificity generally means they are better for the patient then traditional therapies since they dont kill all fast growing cells like hair cells but only the cancerous cells.

Question 92

What type of monoclonal antibodies are used in activation therapy?

Answer 92

-naked monoclonal antibodies:monoclonal antibodies that do not have any other molecules attached to them.Have 3 modes of action against cancer cells.

-conjugated monoclonal antibodies:Monoclonal antibodies with other molcules such as chemotherapy drugs or radioisotopes attached to them.

Question 93

What are the 3 modes of activation naked monoclonal antibodies have against cancer?

Answer 93

-Antibody-dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC):monoclonal antibodies bind to cancer cells and interact with cells of the immune system particullary natural killer cells causing them to recognise the antibody coated cancer cell as foreign and kill it

-Complement activation:Monoclonal antibodies bind to cancer cells and interact with complement proteins ,complement proteins then go on to destroy cancer cells by forming the membrane attacj complex (MAC) or by enhancing the function of other immune cells

-Checkpoint inhibition:immune checkpoints are regulators within the immune system that when activated supress the immune system.Monoclonal antibodies can be used to block these checkpoints therefore meaning the immune system is able to function at greater capacity and is not supressed destroying cancer cells easier.

Question 94

How can monoclonal antibodies be used against cancer by not affecting the immune system?

Answer 94

-Conjugated monoclonal antibodies can use their specificity to deliver molcules such as chemotherapy drugs or radioisotopes to cancer cells.
-blocking cell growth by blocking connection between cancer cell and proteins that increase cell growth
-triggering cell membrane destruction or apoptosis (regulated cell death)

Question 95

How are monoclonal antibodies used for autoimmune diseases?

Answer 95

Monoclonal antibodies can be used as supression immunotherapy to reduce the immune systems attacks on self cells that cause autoimmune disease (Type 1 diabetes,rheumatoid arthritis).When the lymphocytes of someone immunes system fails to recognise self markers and distinguishes them as non self this can be thought to be recognised as an autoimmune disease, as they intiate an attack.

Treatments for autoimmune disease have often consisted of supressing a patients whole immune system via immunosupressants.These type of treatments often resulted in patients becoming immunodefficient meaning they can be mmore suspectible to developing cancers and diseases.While immune supression via immunotherapy would be far more specific,supressing only autoreactive cells and leaving the rest of the immune system to functioning normally.These are currently a few immunotherapy options availiable for those with autoimmune diseases.

Question 96

What are examples of monoclonal antibodies being used against autoimmune diseases in supression immunotherapy?

Answer 96

-Cytokine inhibition:cytokines are messenger molecules used in the immune system to coordinate its response.Monoclonal antibodies that bind to and inhibit cytokines can be used to reduce the immune response

-B and T Cell depletion and inhibition:Monoclonal antibodies that bind to autoreactive B and T cells can be used to either inhibit these cells or stimulate other immune cells to destroy them.