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Edexcel AS Psychology - Cognitive Psychology > Tulving (1972) > Flashcards

Tulving (1972) Flashcards

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1
Q

What does Tulving use to elaborate on long-term memory?

A

The idea of declarative memory.

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2
Q

What is declarative memory?

A

Memory of meanings, e.g. meanings of words & symbols.

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3
Q

What did Tulving split declarative memory into?

A

2 parts:

1) episodic memory
2) semantic memory

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4
Q

Declarative memory may not be as easily understood as…

A

… visual and auditory memory.

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5
Q

Ways in which semantic and episodic memory differ?

A
  • nature of information stored in them
  • the way in one is autobiographical & cognitive
  • differences in retrieval of each
  • differences in how interference might affect each
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6
Q

Autobiographical?

A

One’s memories about themself

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7
Q

Cognitive?

A

Meanings given to things

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8
Q

What does episodic memory do?

A

Receives and stores information about things like dates, times and events.

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9
Q

‘Episodes’ in someone’s life can be encoded using?

A

Visual material, spatial material, sound, smells, etc.

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10
Q

Episodes may have a connection to meanings, but…

A

… episodic memories are encoded perceptually.

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11
Q

Perceptually?

A

To interpret/ be aware of something through the senses.

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12
Q

Episodic memories are…

A

… autobiographical; they are about things that happen to an individual themself.

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13
Q

What are episodic memories encoded and stored with?

A

With personal information.

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14
Q

Learning a list of paired words seems like a semantic memory task if the meaning of the words is involved.

But learning the actual list is an ‘episode’ for the participant. How can we say this is an episodic memory?

A

Because the participant might recall how they set about doing the learning, and they can store the memory of learning the list, and the time and place of learning it.

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15
Q

What is semantic memory needed for?

A

Learning language.

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16
Q

Why is semantic memory needed for language?

A

Because words have meanings.

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17
Q

What needs to be done to meanings for language use?

A

They have to be encoded, stored & retrieved.

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18
Q

Is semantic memory used for just language itself?

A

No, it also includes mathematical symbols and understanding the relationship between words and symbols.

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19
Q

Learning language can be part of the episodic memory, because experiences of learning language are encoded, stored and retrieved.

However…

A

… the language learned is in semantic memory.

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20
Q

What do we mean when we say that semantic memories have a cognitive element?

A

They are about objects and concepts, which involve our thinking, not about what happens to us or what we experience.

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21
Q

Why is it difficult to test semantic and episodic memory separately?

A

Because many tasks involve both types of declarative memory.

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22
Q

Learning anything will give rise to?

A

Episodes in one’s life that are stored.

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23
Q

What did Tulving give as a list of kinds of information that are stored in episodic memory to help explain what episodic memory is?

A

He mentioned himself seeing a flash of light, followed by a sound; having an appointment w/ a student the next day; remembering some words from a list he had to remember in a study - which are all his autobiographical events.

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24
Q

What did Tulving’s semantic memories include?

A

Knowing that summers are quite hot in Kathmandu, and that the month following June is July.

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25
Q

What do we consider when explaining memory stores?

A
  • capacity
  • duration
  • mode of representation
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26
Q

What does the fact that the capacity and duration of LTM is potentially unlimited tell us about declarative memory?

A

Their capacity is unlimited and can potentially last forever.

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27
Q

Studies previously suggested that LTM tends to use…

A

… semantic representation; information is stored according to meaning.

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28
Q

Episodic and semantic memories are both within…

A

… the overall umbrella of ‘semantic’ memory.

29
Q

Episodic memory is stored and encoded the same way as it is…

A

… experienced.

30
Q

Why is there no ‘hierarchy’ of episodic memories?

A

Because people can recall any episodes equally well, no matter what they are.

31
Q

Episodic memories are stored, as…

A

… they arrive.

32
Q

What are episodic memories stored with?

A

With temporal and spatial information.

33
Q

What is temporal information?

A

Information about the time of an episode - when it happened.

34
Q

What is spatial information?

A

Information about the place of an episode - where it happened.

35
Q

Semantic memories aren’t usually stored with?

A

Temporal and spatial information.

36
Q

The semantic memory system doesn’t seem to be organised according to?

A

Time and place of when the memories were encoded.

37
Q

Retrieval of an episodic memory is only possible if?

A

If it has been encoded and stored.

38
Q

What does retrieval from episodic memory change?

A

It changes the memory that is stored.

39
Q

Why does retrieval from episodic memory change the memory that is stored?

A

Because a new episode that links to it is encoded and stored.

40
Q

Semantic memories can help people…

A

… work out something that they don’t know, without actually working it out from scratch.

41
Q

If someone knows that spelling tends to be ‘i before e except after c’, what might they use this for?

A

To spell a word they didn’t previously know the spelling of.

42
Q

There can be retrieval in semantic memory that doesn’t rely on stored information. What does it rely on instead?

A

On stored rules.

43
Q

Retrieval from semantic memory doesn’t change the actual memory, but it could mean what?

A

Storing a new memory.

44
Q

What do experiments looking at episodic memory require?

A

Recall of a personal episode in time and place.

45
Q

Recall of episodic memory is…

A

… either correct or incorrect.

46
Q

In semantic memory, input is…

A

… often unknown.

47
Q

Why is input in semantic memory unknown?

A

Because it isn’t known when someone learned something.

48
Q

In an experiment for episodic memory, input can be…

A

… known.

49
Q

Why is input in episodic memory known in an experiment?

A

Because the experimenter can input an event themself.

50
Q

What do experiments on semantic memory tend to look at?

A

Retrieval processes.

51
Q

Input & storage can’t be studied directly.

So how can they be studied?

A

They have to be inferred from what is recalled.

52
Q

Experiments looking at semantic memory don’t measure…

A

… whether recall is right or wrong.

53
Q

Why don’t experiments on semantic memory measure recall being right/ wrong?

A

Because what is recalled tends to be through ‘free recall’.

54
Q

What is free recall?

A

Recalling information, for e.g. a list of words, in any order.

55
Q

Sometimes answers in studies looking at semantic memory are right or wrong.
For example?

A

When one word triggers another and so the participant makes a mistake.

56
Q

What do studies on semantic memory use?

A

Lists of words, some categorised and some presented randomly.

57
Q

Bower et al. (1969)

A
  • 4 lists of 28 words
  • presented to participants one at a time
  • had to write down as many words as they could remember using free recall
  • one group had words in categories; other had words presented randomly
58
Q

Recall of participants who had words categorised?

A

72 out of 112

59
Q

Recall of participants who had words presented randomly?

A

21 out of 112

60
Q

What do the results of Bower et al. suggest?

A

That meaning is involved in recall, and presumably in encoding and storage.

61
Q

The results of Bower et al. prove as evidence for?

A

The existence of semantic memory.

62
Q

Some case studies of those with brain damage suggest that the pre-frontal lobes (particularly the left hemisphere) are important in?

A

Laying down episodic memories.

(Others suggest semantic memory is affected here, and some suggest perhaps both).

63
Q

What does damage to the prefrontal lobes in the left hemisphere lead to?

A

Laying down memories but in a confused way,

64
Q

It has been suggested that the prefrontal lobe is where…

A

… the central executive is.

WMM!!

65
Q

What corroborating evidence is there for the central executive being in the prefrontal lobe?

A

Cognitive neuroscience findings suggest confusion when there is damage to the prefrontal areas.

66
Q

Which areas of the brain are generally thought to be involved in short-term memory?

A
  • medial temporal lobe
  • hippocampus
  • prefrontal lobe
67
Q

Where do memories go to for storage?

A

To the neocortex.

68
Q

If memories go to the neocortex for storage, where should declarative memory be according to this?

A

In the neocortex.

Edexcel AS Psychology - Cognitive Psychology (19 decks)

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