Training

Question 1

• To examine the effects of career self-management training on career self-management involvement• Career self-management involves developmental feedback seeking and job mobility preparedness (prepares for internal or external career opportunities)• Results:o Career self-management training affected feedback seeking and job mobility, but in the negative directiono Older employees more likely to seek feedback and to develop job mobility• Why the unexpected findings?o Backlash from employees for having to attend a mandatory training o Unmet expectations regarding org env for trying new strategies

Answer 1

Kossek et al. (1998)

Question 2

• Factors associated with motivation to engage in training and career development• Individual differences – cognitive ability (fluid intelligence +ly with training, crystallized intelligence +ly with career dev), objective and subjective constraints, self efficacy, big 5, human capital factors (working class employees, minorities with higher education, geographic mobilitiy, parents’ education level)• Job content/context – motivating potential of job, job empowerment, challenge & hindrance stress, org level of ees• Context of T&D – on site training, supervisor support, task assistance, length of training, composition of trainer and participants• Org and env context – financial performance, promote from within/outside hiring, tech intensity of workplace, feedback culture

Answer 2

Feldman & Ng (2008)

Question 3

• Meta-analysis on moderators influencing the effectiveness of error-management training (EMT)• EMT will result in better post-training performance compared to traditional proceduralized and exploratory training, but not better within-training performance• EMT will result in better adaptive transfer tasks, and not so much for analog transfer task• Active exploration and error encouragement are critical components of EMT’s effectiveness

Answer 3

Keith & Frese (2008)

Question 4

• To examine the cognitive, motivational, and emotional processes involved in active learning approaches o And how core training design elements and individual diff infl learning and transfer• Active learning – trainees control their own learning• Results:o Exploratory learning – higher analog and adaptive transfer (vs. proceduralized learning)o Error framing – higher adaptive transfer (vs. error avoidant approach)o Emotion control strategy – lower anxiety levelso Self-evaluation and metacognitive act expl effects of exploratory learningo Error framing increased intrinsic moti and SE – interacted with trait mastery orientation to infl state mastery orientationo Emotion control strategy reduced state anxiety

Answer 4

Bell & Koslowski (2008)

Question 5

• To identify conditions necessary for Multisource Feedback (MSF) to be effective• Conditions necessary: 1) feedback must be relevant• 2) clear 3) credible 4) person must be ready to change• GAPS – acronym for info needed to identify meaningful developmental goalso Goals and values – what matters to the persono Abilities – how the person sees him/herselfo Perceptions – how others see the persono Success factors – what’s important to others• Other conditions: broaden network of others who can help, change before it’s nec, target weaknesses only if critical for job perf, focus on high voltage potential exp (novel, challenging, high stakes, interaction), take intelligent risks with reasonable chance for success, seek ongoing feedback (ask short, focused questions to many, and get help from colleagues to monitor progress)

Answer 5

Peterson et al (2001)

Question 6

• Overview of content and format of multisource feedback (MSF) reports• Introductory information – purpose of MSF, definitions, how to read report• High level summary of data – explain how data was aggregated, highest & lowest item/competencies• Detailed presentation of MSF data – at the item and competency level• Gaps analysis – compare part ratings to a benchmark at the competency level• Presentation of verbatim comments – both strengths and weaknesses• Developmental suggestions – beh on the job, classes, training courses, readings

Answer 6

Dalessio & Vasilopoulos (2001)

Question 7

• Examine influence of team cross-training on dev of shared team mental model (TMM), team coordination and perf• Cross-training – instructional strategy where members are trained in duties of other memberso Positional clarification – verbal infoo Positional modeling – verbal info and obso Positional rotation – active participation in tasks• Cross-training will increase ability of members to predict coordination and backup needs of team members via better TMM• Results:o Cross-training (positional modeling and rotation) improved TMMo Cross-training -> TMM -> team coordination/backup -> team performance• Implication: not nec to undergo intensive positional rotation to achieve similar effects

Answer 7

Marks et al (2001)

Question 8

• Examine influence of trainee characteristics, team leader support, and team climate in transfer of training• Maximal vs. typical perf – explicit vs. discretionary elicitation of trained beh – typical assessment condition might be more accurate judgment of actual perf in work setting• Team leader support – informal reinforcement of trained beh• Results:o Typical assessment conditions elcited more trained beg in actual work settingo Trainees with supportive beh demonstrated more trained beh o Supportive leader -> perceptions of team climate -> posttraining beho Ind with external locus of control were more affected by team climate in demonstrating trained beh

Answer 8

Smith-Jentsch et al. (2001)

Question 9

• Present a multilevel model of training implementation and training transfer that incorporates 3 elements from org theory: levels of analysis, content, and congruence among content and levels• 3 levels: org, team/unit, and individual• content: technostructural (more tangible and concrete aspects of the org/team) and enabling structure (interpersonal and relational components)• congruence – top-down contextual constraints on training skills and beho upward congruence effects that looks at aggregation of ind trained skills on higher level processes• Expands traditional models of training transfer to include vertical linkages across levels

Answer 9

Kozlowski & Salas (1997)

Question 10

• Learning concept – a process aimed at producing relatively permanent cognitive/motivational/beh change• Reasons for learning – job changes, changes in psych contract, demo changes in workplace – render learning nec• Formal learning act – structured initiative by org e.g. lectures, cross training, active learning etc. – imp challenge – transfer of training• Informal learning act – ind adaptation and org socialization• Formal dev act – ee assessments, mentoring, job exp• Informal dev act – ind initiated need to learn• Approaches to learning – learning strategies, deliberate practice, learning through exp, situated learning • Ind characteristics influences on learning – goal orientation, motivation to learn, cog ability, age• Sit influences on learning – org arrangement, social factors, technology• Disc – imp to implement interventions to enhance learning

Answer 10

Sonnentag et al (2004)

Question 11

• Outlined a multidimensional model of learning outcomes • Cognitive learning outcomes: verbal knowledge, knowledge organization (TMM), cognitive strategies (metacognitive activity)• Skill-based learning outcomes: skill compilation – less error, more task focused and skill automaticity – perform task outside consciousness, can work on parallel tasks• Affectively-based learning outcomes: attitudes – includes socializationo Motivational outcomes – mastery/perf orientation, self-efficacy, goal setting

Answer 11

Kraiger et al (2003)

Question 12

• There are 3 levels of training needs assessment: org analysis, operations (task analysis), and person analysis (which employee needs training)• Level-of-Analysis Perspective (LAP): Events must be viewed in a larger context; analysis of individual elements is useless• Training needs assessment from LAP: The conceptualization is described for the org, subunit and ind level. Goals from each operational level (organization, subunit, individual) must be analyzed. • Task analysis: technical environment and situational constraints relevant; Person analysis: two major constructs (skill and climate)• Too little research about training needs assessment at organization/macro level of analysisSteps for conducting a needs assessment:• 1) Identify levels of analysis relevant to the current needs assessment, 2) Identify conceptual variables of interest for the appropriate levels of analysis, 3) Develop causal pathways or models that link variables within/across levels of analysis, 4)Measure variables and interpret results at the appropriate level of analysis, 5)Use levels perspective to guide training design and evaluation

Answer 12

Ostroff & Ford (1989)

Question 13

• Meta-analysis was used to examine the relationship between specified training design and evaluation features and the effectiveness of training in organizations. • The results suggest a medium to large effect size for organizational training (effect sizes ranged from .60-.63 depending on criterion type – these are large effect sizes)• The training method used, the skill or task characteristic trained, and the choice of evaluation criteria were related to the effectiveness of training programs.• Type of evaluation criteria: Reaction criteria (affective and attitudinal responses); learning criteria; behavioral criteria (actual on the job performance); results criteria (productivity or company profits)• A systematic needs assessment can guide and serve as the basis for the design, development, delivery, and evaluation of the training program

Answer 13

Arthur et al (2003)

Question 14

• Trainee reactions can be conceptualized as hierarchical, with overall sat explaining associations among distinct reaction facets (enjoyment, relevance, technology satisfaction). • Trainee reactions were predicted by trainee characteristics (mastery orientation, interest) and technology. Reactions related (+) to learning process (engagement) and outcomes (intentions regarding delivery technology, content, learning).• Content interest was positively related to trainee reactions• Learners who are higher in mastery orientation had more positive reactions than learners lower in this dimension• Learners who report more positive reactions were a) more engaged in training, and b) reported more positive training-related intentions at the end of training

Answer 14

Brown (2005)

Question 15

• Refined model of training effectiveness• Learning during training is influenced by factors both prior to and during the training itself• Pretraining influences = org, social, team, or ind level influenceso Org-level: org support, mandatory/voluntary, org goalso Social-level: supervisor support during and after training, supervisor positive reaction to training, peer-level comments (usually neg)o Ind-level: trainee readiness, motivation to learn• Readiness for training: state of preparedness – sufficient cog ability, sufficient understanding of job, free from anxieties about learning environment• Motivation to learn: believe training is relevant, willingness to exert effort, past successful experiences w training or high self efficacy, pos influences from other levels• Training motivation influenced by both individual(achievement motivation, internal locus of control, conscientiousness) and situational characteristics (org climate transfer, manager and peer support)• Meta-analysis summarizes the literature on training motivation, its antecedents, and its relationships with training outcomes • Because self-efficacy and valence (+) motivation - trainers should leverage both these constructs at the beginning of training. • Cognitive ability (+) training outcomes, but g-centric approach insufficient for training success• Motivation to learn (+) internal LOC, achievement motivation, job involvement, org commitment, career planning & exploration, supervisor and peer support, and positive climate• Compelling support was for the partially mediated model: personality, age, and climate (distal variables) explained incremental variance in motivation to learn, declarative knowledge, skill acquisition, posttraing self efficacy, reaction, transfer and posttraining job performance

Answer 15

Colquitt et al (2000)

Question 16

• Error Mgmt Training →errors are a natural by-product of active learning → trainees are specifically encouraged to make errors and to learn from them• Meta-analysis of 24 studies about EMT effectiveness• EMT delivers training that seems most useful when the major training goal is to transfer learned skills to novel problems that require the development of new solutions• Both elements of EMT (active exploration and explicit encouragement of errors) are effective• Overall, EMT leads to better training outcomes compared to other training methods that do not encourage errors• EMT was only effective when posttraining performance was considered, instead of within-training performance

Answer 16

Keith & Frese (2008)

Question 17

• Work environments for actions teams is novel, complex, dynamic, and unpredictable so training should focus on skills that would be highly adaptable to any situation• Adaptive expertise is the capability to modify knowledge, skills, and other characteristics acquired during training to effectively meet novel, difficult, and complex situations• Flight simulator task (1 pilot and 1 gunner) with 3 phases: role and team training, training evaluation, transfer of training mission - longitudinal• Self/collective efficacy → regulation processes → adaptive performance (team and individual)• Boosting self-efficacy beliefs is likely to improve individual and team motivation and performance

Answer 17

Chen et al (2005)

Question 18

• Transfer of training: degree to which trainees effectively apply the KSAs gained in the training context to the job• Training experiences actually transferred to the job: 40% transferred immediately, 25% after 6 months, 15% after 1 year• 3 main determinants of training transfer: training design (enabling factors), individual factors (trainee characteristics), and work environment (transfer climate)• Grocery clerks from Portugal completed T1 and T2 surveys about perceptions of their classroom training programs• Feedback from others in org influences training transfer perceptions but supervisor support does not• Must examine all aspects of training process when conducting transfer of training research

Answer 18

Velada et al (2007)

Question 19

• Training attitudes play an important role in training attendance, training effectiveness, and training transfer• 4 distinct goal orientation types – mastery approach, mastery avoid, performance approach, performance avoid• Undergrads with prior work experience completed training attitude and goal orientation measures• Those with higher previous training experience and mastery-approach goal orientations had more positive training attitudes• Women generally reported more favorable training attitudes than men

Answer 19

Narayan and Steele-Johnson (2007)

Question 20

• Fundamental goals of diversity training: to increase awareness of biases; to develop conflict management skills and becoming aware of one own biases; to understand how diversity can be an asset• Survey of 493 employees from MNC (all different cultures) who voluntarily attended a diversity training course about valuing cultural diversity in the workplace• Trainees from individualistic cultures perceived the trainer to be more effective than trainees from collectivistic cultures• A cultural match between trainer and trainee → positive reactions from trainees from collectivist cultures• No cultural differences in terms of training usefulness perceptions

Answer 20

Holladay & Quiñones (2005)

Question 21

• Integrates motivation and cognitive ability in an info processing framework. 3 studies in support of this model• Motivation and cognitive ability (g) are two basic determinants of learning and work performance; interested in the interaction btw them• 3 studies using Air Force trainees• Study 1: ability influenced performance during complex skill acquisition, influence of g weakened as attentional demands of task declined with practice• Study 2: giving goals during intermediate stage of skill acquisition (when ability attentional demands were slightly weakened) enhanced task performance• Study 3: results supported model of the interaction of ability, motivation, and information processing demands during skill acquisition

Answer 21

Kanfer & Ackerman (1999)

Question 22

• An augmented model of Kirkpatrick’s four level model for categorizing training criteria; a meta-analysis• Reactions: affective, utility, combination of both• Learning: immediate knowledge, knowledge retention, behavioral/skill demonstration• Behavior = transfer• Results = measure of impact on organization• Behaviorally specific attitudes (utility), reaction measures that combine utility and affective reactions, and behavioral/skill demonstration measures of learning are the most valid predictors of transfer of training• Overall training measures have high reliabilities, more immediate measures have slightly higher reliability, learning measure have slightly lower reliabilities than reaction or performance measures

Answer 22

Alliger et al. (1997)

Question 23

• Purpose: to replicate previous studies on error training, examine error management instructions, effects of training on short and medium term transfer, and effect of goal orientation.• Error training with error management instructions showed significantly better performance• Learning goal orientation showed no significant effects.• High prove and avoidance goal orientation demonstrated the strongest performance in the error training condition• Error training management may keep trainees attention away from self and on task as well as increasing self regulatory capacity• Error training helps people become more open to change• Error training requires environmental support to encourage transfer.

Answer 23

Heimbeck et al. 2003

Question 24

• Transfer of training- review and future directions• Transfer = generalization of learning to the job context and maintenance over a period of time.o Specific instructional techniques will increase initial learning and enhance later transfer:• Using identical elements, teaching general principles, providing stimulus variabilitTraining Design1) Tasks used limit generalizability of results to short-term, simple motor tasks & memory-skills training2) Criterion has been learning and short-term retentionTrainee Characteristics1) Lack of theoretical framework guiding research2) Lack of adequate criterion measures of transfer – mostly self-reportEnvironmental Characteristics1) Measurement purely correlation, while the transfer process is dynamic.2) Criterion problem strikes again.

Answer 24

Baldwin & Ford 1988

Question 25

• The influence of goal orientation and metacognitive activity on learning outcomes of learner controlled training• Metacog activity was a strong predictor of cognitive, affective and skill-based learning outcomes.• Metacog activity captured variance in learning outcomes over and above time spent on task.• Mastery goal orientation was (+) to metacog activity.• Relationship between metacog intervention & metacog activity was moderated by perf-avoidance goal orientation.

Answer 25

Schmidt & Ford 2003

Question 26

• Discussed theories and practice in the area of training and development.• Themes• Training as instructions: The method by which job-related information is conveyed to learners• Training as learning: The focus is to understand how learners (trainees) acquire, organize, master, and generalize the content of training.• Training as organizational change• Measures issues• Needs assessment• Training evaluation

Answer 26

Kraiger (2003)

Question 27

• 1st Model of training effectiveness

Answer 27

Noe & Schmitt (1986)

Question 28

• Training is recognized as one of the best ways to improve perf Training can create self-efficacy

Answer 28

Chiaburu & Marinova (2005)

Question 29

• Must be motivated to learn• This may come from perceived utility of the material, goal orientation, or whether the material falls w/in their expectations• Effective Training:o Trainees understand the objectives, purpose, and intended outcomes of trainingo Training content is meaningful and relevant to jobo Trainees are provided w learning aids to help them learn, organize, and recall training contento Trainees have the opportunity to practice in a relatively safe environmento Trainees receive feedback on their learningo Trainees have opportunity to observe and interact w other traineeso The training program is efficiently coordinated and arranged

Answer 29

Noe & Colquitt (2002)

Question 30

• Must create positive expectancies about the utility of the training, present info that is consistent with the capabilities of the learners, and provide cues that aid in the retrieval or application of material

Answer 30

Gagne & Medsker (1996)

Question 31

o Propose that ComputerBasedTraining be designed in such a way that it promotes active learning o Need to design info structure and presentation to reflect both meaningful organization of material and ease of useo Need to balance the need for learner control with guidance to help learners make better choices about content and processo Need to provide opportunities for practice and constructive feedbacko Need to facilitate monitoring and control to get learners to be mindful on the learning process

Answer 31

Brown & Ford (2002)

Question 32

o Training should be sequenced so the task-work skills are mastered before teamwork skills are taughto Team training needs the opportunity for guided practice sessions

Answer 32

Salas et al (2002)

Question 33

o Team coordination training = focuses either on specific attitudes promoting cooperation and team-based activities or on teamwork skills that facilitate information exchange, cooperation, and coordination of job-related behaviors

Answer 33

Swezey * Salas (1992)

Question 34

o 4 levels of evaluation = trainees’ reactions, learning, behavior, and results

Answer 34

Kirkpatrick (1994)

Question 35

• Training reactions predict post-training self-efficacy and knowledge• Trainee reactions are used to evaluate training effectiveness• Reactions capture the degree to which training provided a satisfying, meaningful learning experience• Trainee reactions predict training reputation, enrollment rates, motivation, post-training self-efficacy, declarative and procedural knowledge

Answer 35

Sitzmann et al. (2008)

Question 36

• Likely to respond positively if they view training as an opportunity or resource provided by the organization

Answer 36

Goldstein & Ford (2002)

Question 37

• Looked at interaction of cognitive ability and motivation on skill acquisition.• Results: Cognitive ability exerted a strong effect on performance during initial skill acquisition.o Correlation weakened as attention demands of task declined.• Motivational goals during intermed stages of skill acquisition enhanced performance (when attention demands were less).• Conclusion: Motivational influences early in training may interfere with ability’s influence on performance → deprive much needed resources for task.

Answer 37

Kanfer & Ackerman (1989)