Topic 7- memory Flashcards
What are the 3 processes required to remember?
All 3 should occur: encoding-> storage -> retrieval
What is encoding?
Transforming information into a form that can be stored in short-term or long-term memory e.g. if you witness a car crash, you might try to form a mental picture of it to help you remember what you saw.
What is selective attention?
tool that allows us to eliminate interference from the relevant information
What is storage?
The act of maintaining information in memory. For it to occur, consolidation has to happen. Consolidation involves a physiological change that requires the synthesis of molecules.
What is consolidation?
The presumed process by which a permanent memory is formed; believed to involve the hippocampus. Occurs automatically in normal circumstances
What is retrieval?
The act of bringing to mind material that has been stored in memory.
What is information-processing approach?
An approach to the study of mental structures and processes that uses the computer as a model for human thinking.
What is hardware and software in term of human memory system?
hardware- brain structures that are involved in memory
software- learned memory strategies
According to information-processing approach, what are the 3 different interacting memory systems?
Sensory, short-term, and long-term
What is the description, capacity and duration of sensory memory?
It’s a temporary storage for sensory information
Capacity: large
Duration: Visual, 0.1 seconds;
auditory, 2 seconds (SHORT)
What is the description, capacity and duration of short-term memory?
- Also called working memory
- Brief storage for information currently being used
Capacity: About 7 items (a range of 5-9)
Duration: Less than 30 sec without rehearsal
What is the description, capacity and duration of long-term memory?
Permanent or relatively permanent storage
Capacity: Virtually unlimited
Duration: From minutes to a lifetime
What are the ways of losing information from the 3 interacting memory systems?
Sensory memory: Decay, displacement
Short-term memory: Decay, displacement, Interference
Long-term memory: Encoding failure, Consolidation failure, Interference, Motivated forgetting, Retrieval failure
What is sensory memory?
The memory system that holds information coming in through the senses for a period ranging from a fraction of a second to several seconds
What is short-term memory?
The second stage of memory,
which holds about seven (a range of five to nine) items for
less than 30 seconds without rehearsal; working memory; the mental workspace we use to keep in mind tasks we are thinking about at any given moment.
How does short-term memory usually encodes the information?
Short-term memory usually codes information according to sound—that is, in acoustic form. The letter T is coded as the sound “tee,” not as the shape T.
How big is short-term memory’s capacity?
Unlike sensory memory, which can hold a vast amount of information briefly, short-term memory has a very limited capacity—about seven different items or bits of information at one time
What is displacement?
The event that occurs when short-term memory is holding its maximum and each new item entering short-term
memory pushes out an existing item.
What is a method to overcome limited storage of shot-term memory?
Chunking
5 1 9 7 3 1 2 8 5 6 could be chunked 519 731 2856
What is rehersal?
The act of purposely repeating information to maintain it in short-term memory or to transfer it to long-term memory.
What is working memory?
- a temporary way station between sensory memory and long-term memory,
- a kind of mental workspace that temporarily holds incoming information from sensory memory or information retrieved from long-term memory in order to perform some conscious cognitive activity
- an erasable mental
blackboard that allows you to hold briefly in your mind and
manipulate the information, whether it be words, menu prices, or a map of your surroundings
What is levels-of -processing model?
A single-memory-system model in which retention depends on how deeply information is processed.
The deeper the level of processing, the _____
The deeper the level of processing, the higher the accuracy of memory
If information is processed effectively in short-term memory, it makes its way into _____
If information is processed effectively in short-term memory, it makes its way into long-term memory
What is LTM?
Long-term memory- The relatively permanent memory
system with a virtually unlimited capacity.
What are the 2 sub-systems within long-term memory?
Declarative (explicit) memory and nondeclarative (implicit) memory
What is declarative memory?
Explicit (явная) memory. The subsystem within long-term memory that stores facts, information, and personal life experiences; also called explicit memory. There two types of declarative memory—episodic memory and semantic memory
What is episodic memory?
The subpart of declarative memory that contains memories of personally experienced events.
What is semantic memory?
The subpart of declarative memory that stores general knowledge; our mental encyclopedia or dictionary.
What is non-declarative memory?
Implicit (неявная) memory. The subsystem within long-term memory that consists of skills acquired through repetitive practice, habits, and simple classically conditioned responses. Although acquired slowly, once learned, these skills become habit, are quite reliable, and can be remembered and carried out with little or no conscious effort.
What is recall?
A measure of retention that requires one to remember material without the help of retrieval cues, as in an essay test.
What is retrieval cues?
Any stimuli or bits of information that aid in the retrieval of particular information from long-term memory.
What are the methods of measuring memory?
Recall, recognition, and the relearning method
What is recognition?
A measure of retention that requires one to identify material as familiar, or as having been encountered
before.
What is relearning method?
Measuring retention in terms of the percentage of time or learning trials saved in relearning material compared with the time required to learn it originally; also called the savings method.
What is savings score?
The percentage of time or learning trials saved in relearning material over the amount of time or number of
learning trials required for the original learning.
What is reconstruction?
A memory that is not an exact replica of an event but one that has been pieced together from a few highlights, with the use of information that may or may not be accurate.
What are schemas?
The integrated frameworks of knowledge and assumptions we have about people, objects, and events that
affect how we encode and recall information
How do we use schemas?
Schemas help us process large amounts of material by providing us with frameworks to incorporate new information and experience. They also provide association cues that can help us with retrieval
When does distortion occur?
Distortion occurs when we alter the memory of an event
or of our experience so that it fits our beliefs, expectations,
logic, or prejudices
It is the memory of ____ that suffers as a result of high arousal
It is the memory of peripheral details that suffers as a result of high arousal
Does hypnosis improve the memory of eyewitnesses?
According to research-no. hypnosis does not improve the accuracy of memory, only the confidence that what one remembers is accurate.
What is a flashbulb memory?
An extremely vivid memory of the conditions surrounding one’s first hearing of the news of a surprising, shocking, or highly emotional event.
Are Flashbulb memories accurate?
Several studies suggest that flashbulb memories may not be as accurate as people believe them to be.
What is eidetic imagery?
The ability to retain the image of a visual stimulus several minutes after it has been removed from view.
What is serial position effect? Explain it
The tendency to recall the beginning and ending items in a sequence better than the middle items. Information at the beginning of a sequence has a fairly high probability of being recalled because there has been time to rehearse it and encode it into long-term memory-> primacy efect. Information at the end of a sequence has an even higher probability of being recalled because it is still in short-term memory and being rehearsed and encoded at the time you need to remember it-> recency effect
What is primacy effect?
The tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle of the sequence.
What is recency effect?
The tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle of the sequence.
How does environment affect our memory?
Studies suggest that many elements of the physical setting in which we learn information are encoded along with the information and become part of the memory trace. If part or all of the original context is reinstated, it may serve as a retrieval cue. Then the information previously learned in that context may come to mind. This is known as the encoding specificity hypothesis.
Apart from environment, what can act as a retrieval cue?
Odors
What is state-dependent memory effect?
The tendency to recall information better if one is in the same pharmacological or psychological (mood) state as when the information was encoded.
___ appears to affect memory more than other emotions
Anxiety appears to affect memory more than other emotions
Depressed people tend to recall more ___ emotions
Depressed people tend to recall more negative emotions
Describe H.M’s case
- H. M. suffered from severe epilepsy and agreed for removal of the medial portions of both temporal lobes—the amygdala and the hippocampal region,( hippocampus + underlying cortical areas)
- After the surgery, his seizures were reduced, but lost the ability to remember any of the events after the surgery. He stored the events before the operation well. Surgery affected his declarative, long-term memory—his ability to store facts, personal experiences, and names, faces, telephone numbers, and the like. He could still form non-declarative memories (gain skills through practice)
- H. M. suffered from anterograde amnesia
What is anterograde amnesia?
The inability to form long-term memories of events occurring after brain surgery or a brain injury, although memories formed before the trauma are usually intact
H. M.’s case was one of the first indications that the ___ is involved in the formation of long-term memories
H. M.’s case was one of the first indications that the hippocampal region is involved in the formation of long-term memories
What did K.C case demonstrate?
It supported the distinction between semantic and episodic memory.
- Also that the hippocampus is especially important in forming episodic memories. Semantic memory, however, depends not only on the hippocampus, but also on the other parts of the hippocampal region
Describe K.C case
- K. C. suffered massive damage to his left frontal lobe and other parts of the brain due to a motorcycle accident
- He couldn’t remember himself experiencing situations and participating in life’s events
- His episodic memory was erased, but semantic
memory was largely spared
What did taxi drivers prove?
That hippocampus supports navigational skills by helping to create intricate neural spatial maps. Their hippocampuses were larger compared to other people
What is long-term potentiation?
A long-lasting increase in the efficiency of neural transmission at the synapses.
What is nonsense syllables?
Consonant-vowel-consonant combinations that do not spell a word; used to control for the meaningfulness of the material
What are the conditions for long-term potentiation?
Long-term potentiation does not take place unless both the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are activated at the same time by intense high-frequency stimulation. Also, the postsynaptic neuron must be depolarized (ready to fire) when stimulation arrives, or long-term potentiation will not occur
____ is essential in the formation of declarative memories
Hippocampus is essential in the formation of declarative memories
How do memories of threatening situations compare with ordinary memories?
- The strongest and most lasting memories are usually those fuelled by emotion
- Emotional memories are lasting memories, and this may be the most important factor in explaining the intensity and durability of flashbulb memories.
Which hormones have an effect on memory?
- Epinephrin (adrenalin) and norepinephrine (noradrenalin) which activate the amygdala and other parts of the memory system
- Excessive cortisol interferes with memory
- Estrogen appears to improve working memory efficiency
What is mastery?
Being able to recall something twice, without making a mistake
What is it positive bias and why does it exist?
Positive bias: tend to distort memories in a positive way.
Need for emotional well-being.
What is the loftus experiment discover?
The estimated speed of cars in a car crash was affected by the verb used. The verb implied information about the speed, which systematically affected the participants’ memory of the accident.
Showup vs lineup
In a showup, one suspect is presented and the witness indicates whether that person is or is not the perpetrator. There are fewer misidentifications with a showup, but also more failures to make positive identifications
- Lineups may provide greater accuracy than showups when the time interval between the occurrence and identification is lengthened.
- Simultaneous lineup more accurate than sequential lineup
____ of lineup is important
Composition of lineup is important
Eyewitness testimony for kids- the guideline
For children, fast “elimination lineups” most effective.
Ask neutral questions to avoid misinformation effect.
With children, interviewers can take simple steps to increase better reports.
Forgetting can occur at ____ memory stage
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
Describe forgetting as retrieval failure
Sometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it from LTM to STM
Retrieval failure leads to ___
Retrieval failure leads to forgetting
What are the 3 tests that measure retrieval?
- Recall: test of LTM that involves retrieving memories without cues, also termed free recall
- Cued recall: test of LTM that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue
- Recognition: test of LTM that involves identifying correct information from a series of possible choices
How does environmental context affect memory?
People tend to recall material more easily if they are in the same physical location during recall as during the original learning- environmental cues
Describe mood congruence
These are the factors related to mood or emotions
Person in same emotional state as when learning material.
Internal state affects memory, especially anxiety.
Alcohol, drugs, mood affect memory.
Strong memories are fuelled by ___
Strong memories are fuelled by emotion.
What is the forgetting curve?
Hermann Ebbinghaus curve shows that forgetting happens very quickly but eventually tapers off. Forgetting happens quickly in short spaces of time, but the rate of forgetting is lessened over longer periods of time.
He compared the relearning time to the original time, and calculated a percentage of time saved score – this score represented (for him) the amount of learning that had gone on in his mind > percentage, greater learning acquired.
What are the causes of forgetting?
◘ Encoding failure ◘ Interference theories ◘ Decay ◘ Consolidation Failure ◘ Motivated Forgetting ◘ Retrieval Failure ◘Prospective Forgetting
What is encoding failure?
Forgetting resulting from material never having been put into long-term memory.
What is Interference?
- The cause of memory loss that occurs when information or associations stored either before or after a given memory hinder our ability to remember it.
- Old (proactive) or new (retroactive) information interferes with learning or recall
What is decay?
Unused memories disappear with time
What is consolidation failure?
- Disruption in consolidation process preventing permanent memory forming
- can result from anything that causes a person to lose consciousness—a car accident, a blow to the head
- Retrograde amnesia
What is retrograde amnesia?
A loss of memory for events occurring during a period of time preceding a brain trauma that caused a loss of consciousness.
What is motivated forgetting?
- Protect oneself from painful, frightening, unpleasant memories
- Forgetting through suppression, repression, amnesia
What is retrieval failure?
- Inability to locate information
- Cannot retrieve LTM information
- Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
What is prospective forgetting?
Forgetting to carry out action in the future
What is an example of encoding failure?
Not remembering which penny is the right penny
Even though you’ve seen thousands of pennies, you’ve probably never looked at one closely to encode specific features
What are the 2 type of interference?
- Retroactive interference
- Proactive interference
What is Retroactive interference?
- When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information
Example: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number
What is proactive interference?
- When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information
Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today
What are the 2 methods of motivated forgetting?
Suppression: conscious forgetting
Repression: unconscious forgetting
What plays a crucial role in decay theory?
Time
Decay theory: Ability to retrieve info declines with ___ after ___
Ability to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding
What are some of the strategies to improve memory?
- Organization : use categories or mnemonics.
- Overlearning : practice or study beyond where repeated once without error.
- Spaced vs. Massed practice : spacing studying effective (not last minute).
- Active Learning vs. Rereading : active is best; connect new information to present knowledge.
What is massed practice?
One long learning practice session as opposed to spacing the learning in shorter practice sessions over an extended period.
What are the mnemonic devices?
The First-letter Technique
The Method of Loci
The Keyword Method
What is the first letter technique?
Take the first letter of each item and form a word, phrase, or sentence to remember them.
What is the method of Loci?
Place pieces of information in different locations of an area in your mind. Then take an imaginary walk through that location to help you recall the pieces of information placed there
What is the keyword method?
This is particularly used when you want to learn a new language. Learning homonyms in different languages.
e.g you
picture something that sounds like the word you have to learn, such as “canner” for the word canard. Step 2, you make an interactive image with the
sound-alike picture and a picture of the real word you have to learn (“duck in
a can” for canard).
What is procedural memory?
Same as non-declarative memory
Non-declarative memories are typically acquired through _____ and are composed of _____ behaviours that are so deeply embedded that we are no longer aware of them
Non-declarative memories are typically acquired through repetition and practice, and are composed of automatic sensorimotor behaviours that are so deeply embedded that we are no longer aware of them.
What are the subcategories of non-declarative memory?
Priming
Classical conditioned memory
Procedural memory
What is priming
Subcategory of non-declarative memory
Earlier exposure facilitates recall e.g heightened fear after a horror movie
Pavlov used this
What is classical conditioned memory
Subcategory of non-declarative memory
Conditioned response to conditioned stimuli e.g phobias
What is procedural memory
Subcategory of non-declarative memory
Motor skills and habits
e.g brushing teeth
What are the methods of measuring memory?
Recall
Recognition
Relearning method
Schemas affect ____ and _____ recall
Schemas affect encoding and information recall
Downside of eyewitness testimony
Often subject to error
Composition of lineup important.
____ lineup more accurate than ____ lineup.
Simultaneous lineup more accurate than sequential lineup
When does forgetting occur?
Can occur at any memory stage
When is retrieval more likely to be successful?
When conditions of retrieval are similar to conditions of encoding
