Ch 6- learning

Question 1

Define learning

Answer 1

A relatively permanent change in behaviour, knowledge, capability, or attitude that is acquired through experience.

Question 2

Define classical conditioning

Answer 2

Association is learned between one stimulus and another.

Question 3

Define stimulus

Answer 3

Any event or object that in the environment that an organism responds to

Question 4

What are the elements of classical conditioning?

Answer 4

• Reflex (RESPONSE): Inborn, unlearned, automatic responses to certain environmental stimuli
• Stimulus: Any event or object that in the environment that an organism responds to.

Question 5

Define unconditioned stimulus and give examples

Answer 5

A stimulus that elicits a specific response without prior learning.
Unconditioned=UNLEARNED
Food, heat, loud noise

Question 6

Define conditional stimulus

Answer 6

Conditioned=LEARNED
A neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned response.

Question 7

Unconditioned reflexes become ____ after the ______.

Answer 7

Unconditioned reflexes become conditioned after the process of classical conditioning.

Question 8

What are the steps of classical conditioning? Dog example

Answer 8

1. Neutral stimulus (ex: tone) played for dog. No response from dog.
2. Neutral stimulus played for dog just prior to presentation of food powder, the unconditioned stimulus. The dog salivates when presented with the food, the unconditioned reflex/response.
3. This is repeated over many trials, usually 20 or more.
4. Dog associates neutral stimulus with food after the process and salivates. The neutral stimulus is now called the conditioned stimulus, and the salivation is the conditioned reflex/response.

Question 9

What is extinction?

Answer 9

The weakening and often eventual disappearance of a learned response (in classical conditioning, the conditioned response is weakened by repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus).

Question 10

Define unconditional response

Answer 10

A response that is invariably elicited by the unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.

Question 11

What is spontaneous recovery?

Answer 11

The reappearance of an extinguished
response (in a WEAKER form e.g smaller amount of slaiva) when an organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following a rest period.

Question 12

What is generalization in classical conditioning? In operant?

Answer 12

Classical- It’s he tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus; in operant conditioning, the tendency to make the learned response to a stimulus that is similar to the one for which it was originally reinforced.

Question 13

What is stimulus discrimination?

Give a methodology

Answer 13

The learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the conditioned response occurs only to the original conditioned stimulus but not to similar stimuli.
Step 1: The dog is conditioned to the tone C.
Step 2: Generalization occurs, and the dog salivates to a range of musical tones above and below tone C. The dog salivates less and less as the note moves away from C.
Step 3: The original tone C is repeatedly paired with food, but when neighbouring tones are sounded, they are not followed with food. The dog is being conditioned to discriminate. Gradually, the salivation response to the neighbouring tones is extinguished, while salivation to the original tone C is strengthened
Step 4: Eventually, discrimination is achieved:

Question 14

What is higher-order conditioning?

Answer 14

• When another neutral stimulus is paired with a conditioned stimulus that elicits the same response reflex/response.
• Higher-order conditioning is the concept that drives advertising companies to pair celebrities with particular brands.

Question 15

What are the factors influencing classical conditioning?

Answer 15

1. The number of pairings of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
2. The intensity of the unconditioned stimulus- If a conditioned stimulus is paired with a very strong unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will be stronger and will be acquired more rapidly than if it is paired with a weaker unconditioned stimulus
3. How reliably the conditioned stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus
4. The temporal relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus- Conditioning takes place fastest if the conditioned stimulus occurs shortly before the unconditioned stimulus.

Question 16

Describe the Little albert experiment

Answer 16

In the laboratory, Rayner presented Little Albert with a white rat. As Albert reached for the rat, Watson struck a steel bar with a hammer just behind Albert’s head. This procedure was repeated. A week later, the rat was paired with the loud noise five more times. Then at the sight of the white rat alone, Albert began to cry.
When Albert returned to the laboratory 5 days later, his fear had generalized to a rabbit and (to a lesser degree) to a dog, a seal coat, Watson’s hair, and a Santa Claus mask.

Question 17

Describe Robert Rescorla’s experiment

Answer 17

• showed that in classical conditioning, pairing two stimuli doesn’t always produce the same level of conditioning. Conditioning works better if the conditioned stimulus acts as a reliable signal that predicts the appearance of the unconditioned stimulus
• Rescorla used a tone as the conditioned stimulus and a shock as the unconditioned stimulus. For one group of rats, the tone and shock were paired 20 times—with the shock always occurring during the tone.
  The other group of rats also received the shock 20 times while the tone was sounding, but this group also received 20 shocks that were not paired with the tone. Only the first group, for which the tone was a reliable predictor of the shock, developed the conditioned response to the tone. For the second group, the tone provided no additional information about the shock

Question 18

Do genetics play a role in classical conditioning?

Answer 18

Yes
Animals and humans have biological predispositions that help them acquire or resist classical conditioning
•Animal example: Mice avoidance response
•Human example: fearing things with negative effects on health and well-being

Question 19

What are common fears related to?

Answer 19

Common fears are related to survival and adaptability of humans throughout evolution.

Question 20

GARCIA & KOELLING TASTE AVERSION EXPERIMENT

Answer 20

• exposed rats to a three-way conditioned stimulus: a bright light, a clicking noise, and flavoured water.
• For one group of rats, the unconditioned stimulus involved being exposed to either X-rays or lithium chloride, both of which produce nausea and vomiting several hours after exposure. A second group of rats received electric shock to their feet as the unconditioned stimulus. The group of rats that were made ill associated the flavoured water with the nausea and avoided it at all times. These rats would drink unflavoured water even when the bright light and the clicking sound were present—so only the flavoured water served as a conditioned stimulus. The rats who received the electric shock, however, continued to prefer the flavoured water over unflavoured water, but they would not drink at all when the bright light or clicking noise were present. This second group associated the electric shock only with the light and sound, not with the presence or absence of flavouring.

Question 21

Taste aversion examples in humans

Answer 21

Radiation and chemotherapy often causes nausea, which patients learn to associate with their foods (even favorite foods)
Bernstein et al. (1982, 1985) developed a technique to help patients avoid taste aversion during treatment- would feed patients maple-flaviured ice-cream so aversion would only be developed to that flavour

Question 22

CC and Fear

Answer 22

Development of phobias and anxieties surrounding different objects or environments often a result of classical conditioning.

Question 23

CC and drug use

Answer 23

• All drugs produce a physiological effect in the body which the body adjusts to ->Drug Tolerance develops.
• Familiar cues in the users usual environment act as conditioned stimuli to alert the body that the drug is about to be ingested-> Stimulates the body to apply physiological mechanisms to prepare for drug use and to counteract drug’s effect
• User finds self in an unfamiliar setting, without the usual cues-> Body is not signaled to prepare for large scale drug use, and does not prepare mechanisms to counteract drug-> User overdoses in unfamiliar setting.

Question 24

Garcia and Koelling’s research suggests that classical conditioning is influenced by ___________.

Answer 24

biological predisposition

Question 25

CC and sexual arousal

Answer 25

- male rats were each given a small jacket to wear just before being placed in a chamber with a sexually receptive female rat. Over the next few days, the male rats were given several opportunities to mate—each time dressed in their jackets before gaining access to the female. - half of the males that had worn the jackets were each placed in a chamber with a receptive female, but this time without their jackets on. The other half continued to wear their jackets when they were placed with a female. - The group that no longer wore their jackets took a much longer time to begin trying to copulate and a much longer time to ejaculate than did their jacketed counterparts. Clearly, the jackets had become an important part of the rats’ sexual experience. Jackets had become a conditioned stimulus for sexual arousal, and without them, the rats’ sexual performance suffered.

Question 26

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 26

Goal is to change behavior. The consequence of a behavior (reinforcement or punishment) tends to change or modify that behavior in the future. This is ACTIVE change.

Question 27

Define reinforcement

Answer 27

An event that follows a response and increases the strength of the response or the likelihood it will happen. Reinforced behavior tends to increase

Question 28

Define positive reinforcement

Answer 28

Something good is being added to INCREASE (or strengthen) a target behaviour

Question 29

Define negative reinforcement

Answer 29

Something bad is being removed to INCREASE (or strengthen) a target behavior

Question 30

Define punishment

Answer 30

Something is happening to an organism to DECREASE a target behavior. Opposite of reinforcement, lowering the chance of a response. Punished behavior tends to decrease

Question 31

What is the skinner box?

Answer 31

Invented by B. F. Skinner for conducting experiments in operant conditioning; a soundproof chamber with a device for delivering food and either a bar for rats to press or a disk for pigeons to peck

Question 32

Explain hoe Skinner box is used (rat and a bar)

Answer 32

Rats in a Skinner box are conditioned through the use of shaping to press a bar for rewards. A rat may be rewarded first for simply turning toward the bar. Once this behaviour is established, the next reward comes only when the rat moves closer to the bar. Each step closer to the bar is rewarded. Next the rat may touch the bar and receive a reward; finally, the rat is rewarded only when it presses the bar.

Question 33

What is shaping?

Answer 33

Gradually moulding a desired behaviour by reinforcing responses that become progressively closer to it; reinforcing successive approximations of the desired response.

Question 34

Behavior is usually shaped using ____ of the desired behaviour.

Answer 34

Behavior is usually shaped using successive approximations of the desired behaviour.

Question 35

Define successive approximation

Answer 35

A series of gradual training steps, with each step becoming more like the final desired response.

Question 36

Extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization and discrimination in operant conditioning

Answer 36

Extinction occurs when reinforcers are withheld in operant conditioning Spontaneous recovery can also occur after a break Generalization occurs in operant conditioning Discrimination occurs when we learn our responses work for one stimulus but not another.

Question 37

What is a discriminative stimulus

Answer 37

A signal or cue from an environment that allows organisms to recognize that a response or behavior is likely to be rewarded

Question 38

What is the quickest way to get a desired behaviour?

Answer 38

Continuous reinforcement

Question 39

What is partial reinforcement?

Answer 39

A pattern of reinforcement in which some portion, rather than 100 percent, of the correct responses are reinforced.

Question 40

What is continuous reinforcement?

Answer 40

Reinforcement that is administered after every desired or correct response; the most effective method of conditioning a new response.

Question 41

What is schedules of reinforcement?

Answer 41

Systematic programs for administering reinforcement that have a predictable effect on behaviour.

Question 42

Maintenance and strengthening of response following conditioning is achieved through

Answer 42

Partial reinforcement

Question 43

What are primary reinforcers?

Answer 43

Those that fulfill basic physical needs for survival- Food, water, sleep, well-being, sex

Question 44

What are secondary reinforcers?

Answer 44

Secondary reinforcers can be exchanged at another time for other reinforcers, and are thus learned by association with other reinforcers-> Money, good grades, awards, applause, signals of approval, etc.

Question 45

What variables are affected by different schedules of partial reinforcement?

Answer 45

response rates, patterns of response, and resistance to extinction

Question 46

What is fixed ratio schedule good for?

Answer 46

- Very effective way to maintain a high response rate, because the number of reinforcers received depends directly on the response rate. The faster people respond, the more reinforcers they earn.

Question 47

Describe variable ratio schedule

Answer 47

- Reinforcer administered based on an average ratio after a varying number of non-reinforced correct responses. - Results in higher and more stable rates of responding than fixed ratio. - Maintains behavior and guards against extinction Highest response rate Constant response pattern, no pauses Most resistant to extinction

Question 48

Describe fixed interval schedule

Answer 48

- Reinforcer administered following first correct response after a fixed period of time.

Question 49

Describe variable interval schedule

Answer 49

- Reinforcer administered based on average time after the first correct response following a varying time of non-reinforcement. - Provides a uniform and stable rate of response, but typically lower rates than ratios. Moderate response rate Stable, uniform response

Question 50

What are the factors influencing operant conditioning? (3)

Answer 50

1) Magnitude of the reinforcement. Bigger reward leads to: •Faster acquisition of response •Higher rate of responding •Greater resistance to extinction 2) Immediacy of reinforcement •Longer the delay, more slowly the response is acquired. 3) Level of Motivation. If you really like or need something, you’ll learn faster.

Question 51

Negative reinforcement vs punishment

Answer 51

Negative reinforcement increases likelihood a response will happen by removing an unpleasant stimulus Punishment LOWERS the probability of a response.

Question 52

Disadvantages of punishment

Answer 52

1) Punishment does not fully extinguish a behavior, it is simply suppressed. 2) Punishment only indicates what behaviors are unacceptable, but does not help people develop more appropriate behaviours. 3) A person who is severely punished may become fearful, afraid, and/or hostile. 4) Punishment frequently leads to aggression.

Question 53

What are the 3 Factors that can influence the effectiveness of punishment if it is necessary?

Answer 53

1) Timing: Best when applied during or soon after the behavior. 2) Intensity: Punishment should not exceed what is required. 3) Consistency: It must be applied consistently to be effective.

Question 54

In which condition should punishment be never administered?

Answer 54

NEVER administer punishment in anger

Question 55

What is avoidance learning?

Answer 55

Learning to avoid events or conditions associated with dreaded or aversive outcomes.

Question 56

What is escape learning?

Answer 56

Learning to perform a behaviour because it terminates an aversive event, it reflects the power of negative reinforcement.

Question 57

What is learned helplessness? Was there an experiment to demonstrate learned helplessness?

Answer 57

Learned Helplessness is when we simply accept the aversive situation we are in, rather than attempting to take action to change, escape, or avoid it. Learned through repeated exposure to the aversive event with no chance to escape Yes, Overmeier and Seligman experiment with dogs demonstrated learned helplessness in animals.

Question 58

Describe Overmeier and Seligman experiment?

Answer 58

Showed helplessness in dogs 2 groups of dogs: Experimental group •Initially strapped to harness and shocked with no escape. •Trials administered where dog learns to jump hurdle to avoid shock when signal sounded. • Later, these same dogs were placed in a shuttle box with two experimental compartments separated by a low barrier. Teh shock could have been avoided by jumping over the barrier but, the dogs did not do so Results: dog never learns to avoid floor and jump hurdle. Control group •Learned to jump barrier when signal sounded.

Question 59

Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning- type od association

Answer 59

CC: Between two stimuli OC:Between a response and its consequence

Question 60

Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning- state of subject

Answer 60

CC: Passive OC: Active

Question 61

Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning- focus of attention

Answer 61

CC: On what precedes response OC: On what follows response

Question 62

Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning- Type of response typically involved

Answer 62

CC: Involuntary or reflexive response OC:Voluntary response

Question 63

Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning- Bodily response typically involved

Answer 63

CC: Internal responses: emotional and glandular reactions; movement and verbal responses OC: External responses: muscular and skeletal

Question 64

Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning- range of responses

Answer 64

CC:Relatively simple OC: Simple to highly complex

Question 65

Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning- Responses learned

Answer 65

CC: Emotional reactions: fears, likes, dislikes OC:Goal-oriented responses

Question 66

What is behaviour modification? Give an example

Answer 66

The systematic application of the learning principles of operant conditioning, classical conditioning, or observational learning to individuals or groups in order to eliminate undesirable behaviour and/or encourage desirable behaviour- Token economy

Question 67

What is token economy?

Answer 67

Behavioural techniques used to encourage desirable behaviours by reinforcing them with tokens that can be exchanged later for desired objects, activities, and/or privileges.

Question 68

What is observational learning?

Answer 68

Learning by observing the behaviour of others and the consequences of that behaviour; learning by imitation.

Question 69

Define modeling and model

Answer 69

modelling: Another name for observational learning. model: The individual who demonstrates a behaviour or serves as an example in observational learning.

Question 70

When is observational learning useful?

Answer 70

1) To acquire new responses or weaken existing ones. 2) When we find ourselves in unfamiliar situations. 3) To weaken or strengthen inhibitions and fears

Question 71

Describe Bandura's Bobo Dolls

Answer 71

- Albert Bandura suspected that aggressive behaviour is particularly subject to observational learning - Study involved three groups of preschool children. Children in one group individually observed an adult model punching, kicking, and hitting a Bobo doll while uttering aggressive words - Children in the second group observed a non-aggressive model who ignored the Bobo doll. - Children in the control group were placed in the same setting as those in the two other groups, but with no adult present. - Later, each child was observed through a one-way mirror. Participants exposed to the aggressive model imitated much of the aggression and also engaged in significantly more non-imitative aggression than either of the other groups. Participants in the second group, who had observed the non-aggressive model, showed less aggressive behaviour than the control group.

Question 72

Describe the second experiment by Bandura

Answer 72

Another experiment by Bandura demonstrated observational learning when exposed to non-live models of aggressive behavior. 4 groups: •Group 1: Exposed to live model •Group 2: Exposed to video of model •Group 3: Exposed to cartoon depicting aggressive cartoon character •Group 4: control Results: Groups 1-3 (exposed to aggressive material) significantly more aggression than control.

Question 73

What are the variables of different schedules of partial reinforcement?

Answer 73

response rates, patterns of response, and resistance to extinction

Question 74

What is a ratio schedule?

Answer 74

Reinforcer administered after a set number of non-reinforced trials

Question 75

What is interval schedule?

Answer 75

Reinforcer administered after the first correct response after period of time.

Question 76

What is fixed ratio schedule? Variable?

Answer 76

* Fixed: Schedule the same every time. | * Variable: Schedule changes.

Question 77

Downsides of fixed interval schedule

Answer 77

- Often a pause or sharp decline in responding after last correct response- you know that effort can be often be placed only at certain periods of time e.g cramming before exams Lowest response rate Response pattern: Long pause after reinforcement followed by gradual acceleration

Question 78

Fixed interval schedule and resistance to extinction

Answer 78

The longer the interval, the more resistant to extinction

Question 79

What is more resistant to extinction- variable interval schedule of fixed?

Answer 79

Variable interval schedule is more resistant to extinction than fixed-interval schedule with same average interval

Question 80

Which schedule maintains behavior and guards against extinction?

Answer 80

Variable ratio schedule