Topic 6: Measurement and evaluation of human performance

Question 1

Standard deviation

Answer 1

Standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean, and that within a normal distribution approximately 68% and 95% fall within + or - 1 or 2 standard deviation points respectively.

Question 2

Explain how the standard deviation is useful for comparing the means and the spread of data between two or more samples

Answer 2

A small standard deviation indicates that the data is clustered closely around the mean value.
Conversely, a large standard deviation indicates wider spread around the mean.

Question 3

outline the meaning of coefficient variation

Answer 3

Coefficient variation is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean expressed as a percentage.

Question 4

Deduce the significance of the difference between two sets of data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables

Answer 4

For the t-test too be applied =, ideally the data should have a normal distribution and a sample size of at least 10. The t-test can be used to compare two sets of data and measure the amount of overlap

Question 5

Outline the importance of the PAR-Q

Answer 5

Assesses the readiness for an individual to partake in a general training program

Question 6

Components of fitness:

Health related

Answer 6

body composition (endomorph, ectomorph, mesomoprh - percentage of the body that is fat, muscle, or bone_
cardio-respiratory fitness (aerobic capacity)
flexibility (range of movement possible at a joint)
muscular endurance (the ability for your muscles to be used for long periods of time)
strength (the ability for your muscles to exert large amounts of force)
Used in every day life, needed to survive.

Question 7

Components of fitness:

Skill related

Answer 7

agility
balance
coordination
power
reaction time
speed
Specialized components, needed more during sport events.

Some components of performance-related fitness could become health-related for certain group such as the elderly suffering from hypo-kinetic diseases.

Question 8

Distinguish between the concepts of health-related fitness and performance-related fitness

Answer 8

The components that make up health-related fitness are: muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, body composition and cardiovascular endurance. The components forming performance-related fitness are: speed, power, agility, balance, reaction time, and coordination.

The concept of HRF is that each of the components are required to a certain extent for day to day activity. You would need cardiovascular endurance to make the walk up the stairs to get to work for example. The focus of HRF is to improve the overall health of an individual.

Although the components of HRF are also requires in sport, the way in which HRF and PRF differ are that the components of PRF are required for specific sports. Not all the sports need all the PRF components. Whereas a sprinters main component would be speed and not agility, a tennis player would require much more agility and less speed than the sprinter. Components of PRF, unlike HRF are not needed in day to day life, yet HRF is beneficial to all sports. In some specialized cases, PRF can be determined a HRF, like in the case of the elderly where balance and coordination may be required to lead a healthy life and contribute to the general wellbeing of the human.

Question 9

Aerobic capacity

Answer 9

The ability to take in, deliver and use oxygen for use by the aerobic or oxidative energy system
It is most commonly characterised by an individual’s maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max), which is the maximal rate that oxygen can be used during maximal exercise
Underpinned by the limits of the cardiovascular and ventilatory systems to extract oxygen from the atmosphere, deliver it to respiring tissues and use it
Low levels of cardiorespiratory fitness are associated with many diseased states and epidemiological research has shown an association with a shorter lifespan
Conditions where cardiovascular or ventilatory function is impaired (heart disease, chronic lung disease) fitness is reduced
Low intensities of physical activity can be tolerated before anaerobic energy systems need to be relied on
High levels of cardiorespiratory fitness are observed in endurance trained athletes
Enabling them to tolerate much higher intensities and durations of physical activity

Question 10

Flexibility

Answer 10

The ability to move through the full range of movement around a joint
Flexibility is underpinned by a range of condition:
The capacity of the muscles and tendons to stretch
Ligament condition
Joint mechanics
Size and shapes of bones

Question 11

Muscular endurance

Answer 11

The ability of a muscle or muscle group to maintain force or power
The underpinning physiology is a complex interaction of a number of factors and their relative importance depends on the relative intensity of muscular contractions
Mostly related to the availability of substrates, enzyme activity and build-up of metabolites

Question 12

Agility

Answer 12

The ability to rapidly change direction or speed
This may or may not be in response to stimulus
It can be separated into the physical ability to change direction or speed

Question 13

Strength

Answer 13

The ability to generate force by a muscle or muscle group
Strength is underpinned by the muscle mass that is available (volume and muscle fibre-type), the ability to activate that muscle mass and the coordination of this muscle activity
Dependent on both the neural and muscular systems and their successful interaction

Question 14

Speed

Answer 14

The ability to change the distance with respect to time when movement occurs
This could refer to whole-body speed or of a particular joint or muscle group
Depending on the context in sport and exercise
In many sporting competitions the time that it takes to complete a given activity is what determine the outcome
Explosive sporting activities such as jumping and throwing rely on speed of movement

Question 15

Body composition

Answer 15

Relates to the proportion of an individual’s total body mass that is made up of fat and fat-free mass
What makes up the total body mass is important
Body fat mass (FM) includes essential fat found in the tissues, organs and stored fat
Energy Reserve
Fat-free mass (FFM) refers to what makes up the rest of the body
Muscle, water and bone
High levels of body fat are associated with many pathological disorders and so maintenance of low body fat mass is important for health-related physical fitness
Fat mass that is too low
Anorexia
Muscle mass that is too low
Sarcopenia
Most sporting activities, body fat is kept low
Sumo wrestling being an extreme opposite
In collision sports, FFM is kept high
American football
Rugby
FFM is kept low
In weight restricted sports
Boxing
Aesthetic sports
Gymnastics
Bone density is another important aspect of body composition
A low bone density underpins osteoporosis
Exercise can play an important role in maintaining bone density

Question 16

Balance

Answer 16

The stability of the body
To maintain balance the center of gravity needs to be maintained above the supporting base of the body and this is achieved through coordinated contraction and relaxation of postural muscles in response to positional changes
Postural changes are detected by visual, vestibular and proprioceptive processes and this stimulates the coordinated muscular responses in order to maintain balance
Successful balance depends on the ability to sense position and respond to the sensory information in a coordinated fashion, with integration of neuromuscular systems

Question 17

Coordination

Answer 17

The ability to integrate the above listed components so that effective movements are achieved.

Question 18

Reaction time

Answer 18

The duration between the presentation of a stimulus and the associated response
Depends on the integration of neuromuscular systems
The reaction time reflects the combination
Detecting sensory information
Processing this information
Sending a response
Effecting this response
The reaction time is very dependent on the interaction of the stimulus type and the environment
There may be single stimulus and single response in the simplest tasks, compared to highly complex tasks with multiple stimuli and multiple responses with distracting information

Question 19

Power

Answer 19

Represents the combination of force (strength) and velocity (speed)
Has the same unpinned by the same factors as strength and speed
Importance depends on the activity
High forces required emphasises on strength
Lower forces emphasises on speed
Muscular power is often seen as one of the most important determinants of sporting performance

Question 20

MSTF

Answer 20

The test requires participants to perform repeated 20-meter shuttles at progressively increasing speeds
Until exhaustion is reached
The running speed is indicated by the audio-sound (the “beep”) that indicates that the next shuttle should start with a sound
The first level of the test is of low intensity
Fast walk or light jog
Approximately each minute the frequency of the sounds increases
Causing an increase in running speed for that level
Performance in the test is described as the level reached
The number of completed shuttles in that level reached
If the participant stops or fails to keep pace with the sound, they would be disqualified from continuing

The score is then compared against a reference table where an estimated of VO₂max can be obtained based on the number of shuttles
An increased score correspond to a higher VO₂max

Question 21

Advantages of MSFT

Answer 21

Limited expertise and equipment needed

Maximal test with continuous exercise

Question 22

Advantages of MSFT

Answer 22

Limited expertise and equipment needed
Maximal test with continuous exercise
Easy to score
Large numbers can be tested at once in a short time

Question 23

Limitations of MSFT

Answer 23

Prediction based on performance and not direct measurement
Maximal test
Safety
Ethical considerations
Importance of motivation
Environmental factors influence performance as not in a laboratory
Score is known by participants and previous scores or targets score may impact on performance

Question 24

Cooper’s 12-minute run

Answer 24

The test requires participants to run/walk as far as they can in a period of 12 minutes
The total distance then entered into an equation to estimate VO₂max

Question 25

Advantages of Cooper run

Answer 25

Limited expertise and equipment needed
Easy to score
Large numbers can be tested at once in a short time

Question 26

Limitations of Cooper run

Answer 26

Prediction based on performance and not direct measurement
Maximal test
Safety
Ethical considerations
Importance of motivation
Environmental factors influence performance as not in a laboratory
The protocol is not progressive in nature and therefore pacing will be a key factors

Question 27

Harvard step test

Answer 27

The outcome measure for this test is not performance, but based on the recovery of heart rate after performing a fixed amount of work
Performers are required to step on and off a step (45cm High) at a rate of 30 steps each minute for 5 minutes
Making a total of 150 steps
The heart rate of the participant is then measured at the end of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd minutes of recovery following completion of the test
An equation is then uses the total of these 3 heart rate values to estimate VO₂max based on the association of a lower heart rate (and faster recovery) at a fixed intensity with higher VO₂max

Question 28

Advantages of Harvard step test

Answer 28

Limited to expertise and equipment needed

The test is based on physiological findings and not performance-Pacing and motivation will not affect the results

Question 29

Disadvantages of Harvard step test

Answer 29

Prediction based on heart rate values
Does not account for individual variation in heart rate
Heart rate needs to be measured accurately
Small differences will impact on the result

Question 30

Sit and reach

Answer 30

Sit on the floor with both legs straight out in front of you. Place a box at your feet (touching the soles of your feet) with a ruler attached to the top of it. Reach as far as you can along the ruler, keeping your legs straight
\+
minimal equipment
can be conducted anywhere
-specialised equipment needed
-assistance required

Question 31

Ruler drop test

Answer 31

have to catch a ruler between their finger and thumb and record the distasnce the ruler falls before it is caught.

Question 32

Ruler drop test

Answer 32

have to catch a ruler between their finger and thumb and record the distasnce the ruler falls before it is caught.
+
Easy to set up
-assistance required

Question 33

Vertical jump

Answer 33

Start with hand outreached. Use a rules taped to the wall. With chalk jump and draw as high as possible.
\+
minimal equipment 
don't need assistance
-
hard to control chalk
unnatural to jump with hand outstretched

Question 34

Standing broad jump

Answer 34

Jump as far as possible standing still
\+
minimal equipment
do on your own
simple
-
technique important
only tests leg power

Question 35

Hand ball test

Answer 35

Bounce a ball and catch as many times in 30 seconds 
\+
minimal equipment
simple
by yourself
-
technique affects
only measures hand-eye

Question 36

Standing stalk

Answer 36

stand on one foot and balance as long as possible
+
easy
-never occurs in real life sporting situation

Question 37

40 metre sprint

Answer 37

Athlete sprints 40 metres as fast as possible. Rest for 30 seconds and do it again x6
\+
minimal equipment
simple
indoors or outdoors
-
help needed

Question 38

Identify three elements that should be included in a general training program for health and fitness, and outline the importance of each.

Answer 38

1. Warm up and stretching should be included in a general training program and should be the first thing done, before the main even is carried out. This is because the warm up prepares the body for the more strenuous exercise that is about ready to occur. To do this the warm up increase you heart rate and breathing rate and warms the body up.
2. A general training program should also include a cool down as to slowly reduce the intensity of the activity done as the main event. This slow decline from an endurance activity helps prevent muscle soreness due to a build up of the bye product of lactic acid. To maintain the flexibility and help keep muscles loose the cool down should also include stretching activities.
3. A general training program should also include recreational activities to keep the performer enjoying sport and keeping relaxed an healthy. Doing these sorts of activities contributes to a both better physical and mental wellbeing.

Question 39

Static stretching

Answer 39

performed without movement.
Placing the body in a position whereby the muscle is stretched under tension. At this point the position is held to allow the muscle to lengthen.

Question 40

Active stretching

Answer 40

Slow stretching in which flexibility is achieved without assistance. Using the strengths of the opposing muscle to generate a held stretch within the agonist

Question 41

Passive stretching

Answer 41

A partner or apparatus can be used to help further stretch the muscles and joints.

Question 42

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

Answer 42

After the stretch is held, the muscle to contracted isometrically. It then relaxes and is contracted again, usually going further the second time.
Aim= to toughen up or inhibit proprioceptors in the relaxation of muscle tissue.

Question 43

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

Answer 43

After the stretch is held, the muscle to contracted isometrically. It then relaxes and is contracted again, usually going further the second time.
Aim= to toughen up or inhibit proprioceptors in the relaxation of muscle tissue.

Question 44

Key principle of training program design

Answer 44

progression: gradually increasing the amount of exercise
overload (frequency, intensity and duration): FITT principles
specificity: The process of replicating the characteristics of physical activity in training to ensure its benefit performance.
reversibility: How long it takes you to lose that base fitness. If the athlete does not use, she/he will lose it.
variety: Providing different activities, formats and drills in training while still addressing the aims of the training program. Helps to decrease boredom
periodization: A structured, Organized approach to training

Question 45

Discuss how overload and progression can be used to maximize the effectiveness of a sprinter’s weight training program

Answer 45

Overload is the concept of making the weights that the sprinter is using are heavy enough to cause stress on the muscles being worked. The sprinter may be working on leg muscles to increase their power for the start of the sprint. Here they may be using the leg press machine, where they must be careful to apply overload, but not to the extent of causing injury because of an unmanageable weight. This weight will increase with the concept of progression, where, when an adaptation due to training has occurred, the weight goes up gradually to continually apply stress on the sprinter and to move the training and results of hypertrophy due to these two concepts forward. Progression also avoids overtraining as it only allows the reps and sets, or weight to be increased gradually in line with the improvements the participant has made. Following these two concepts maximize the effectiveness of the weight training program for the sprinter as it allows the most rapid form of an increase in fitness without risk of injury.

Question 46

Outline ways in which exercise intensity can be monitored-HR

Answer 46

Bases upon the relationship with oxygen uptake.

Question 47

Outline ways in which exercise intensity can be monitored-Karvonen method

Answer 47

one of the most effective methods used to calculate your target heart rate for aerobic (cardio) exercise. It factors in your resting heart rate (RHR), which is a good indicator of your state of fitness.

Karvonen formula : target training HR = resting HR + (0.6 [maximum HR -resting HR]).