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year 1 flash cards > TOPIC 6 - infections > Flashcards

TOPIC 6 - infections Flashcards

1
Q

What are helminths?

A

Complex organisms - worms

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2
Q

What is a cestode?

A

Tapeworm - segmented and flat

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3
Q

What is a trematode?

A

Fluke - unsegmented and flat

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4
Q

What is a nematode?

A

Round worms - cylindrical and have a digestive tract with lips , teeth and anus

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5
Q

Taenia Saginata

A

Beef tapeworm:

  • intestinal parasite of human
  • largely asymptomatic
  • abdominal pain and malnutrition
  • cattle are intermediate hosts- we eat cattle = eggs hatch in us
  • diagnosis - stool microscopy for eggs or patient sees worm in stool
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6
Q

Bilharzia

A
  • infects veins around the bladder
  • bladder inflammation and haematuria (blood in urine)
  • freshwater snails are intermediate hosts
  • diagnosis - urine microscopy for eggs
  • if fluke live in bladder for long time = chronic bladder inflammation = cancer
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7
Q

Endoparasites

A

Live INSIDE the body
- helminths
- protozoa
major cause of illness

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8
Q

Ectoparasites

A 
Live OUTSIDE the body
- fleas
- lice
- bed bugs
- ticks
minor cause of illness but can transmit
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9
Q

What is a parasite?

A

An organism which depends on another for its survival to the detriment of its host

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10
Q

What is protozoa?

A

Unicellular organisms, some have complex lifecycles involving more than one host

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11
Q

Entamoeba histolytica

A

Amoeba

  • invades large bowel lining
  • dysentery - abdominal cramps and bloody diarrhoea
  • excreted with faeces
  • spread via contaminated food and water (poor hygiene and sanitation
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12
Q

Plasmodium falciparum

A

Sporozoa (malaria)

  • lifecycle in both humans and mosquitos
  • infects red blood cells and liver
  • fever, headache and joint pains
  • eventually cause kidney failure, coma and death
  • spread via mosquitos
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13
Q

What are the 2 main forms of fungi?

A

Yeast - single cells which bud
Mould - filamentous strands
Diamorphic fungi can switch between the two

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14
Q

Tinea pedis

A

Athlete’s foot

  • usually starts between the toes
  • itchy, scaly rash on feet
  • usually occurs when sweaty feet are in tight, confined shoes (accumulation of moisture between the toes)
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15
Q

Tinea corporis

A

Ringworm

  • superficial fungal infection of skin
  • most common on arms and legs (glabrous skin)
  • spread by skin to skin contact
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16
Q

Cryptococcus neoformans

A

Yeast

  • infects patients with failing immune system (ie HIV)
  • causes meningitis
  • inflammation of membranes lining the brain
  • headache, neck stiffness, confusion, coma, death
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17
Q

Bacteria

A
  • prokaryotes
  • peptidoglycan cell wall
  • no nucleus
  • reproduce asexually
  • move using flagellae and pili
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18
Q

Common bacterial infections

A 
Pneumonia
UTI
Cellulitis
Meningitis
Cholecystitis
Diverticulitis
Appendicitis
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19
Q

Round bacteria

A

Coccus

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20
Q

Rod bacteria

A

Bacillus

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21
Q

Stain used in gram staining

A

Crystal Violet- some bacterial walls retain crystal violet stain, other don’t

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22
Q

Colour of stain in gram positive

A

Purple

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23
Q

Colour of stain in gram negative

A

Pink

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24
Q

Clinical importance of classifying bacteria

A
  • quickest way to identify them

- Allows you to predict which antibiotics will be effective quickly and so which prescribe

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25
Q

Streptococcus pneumoniae

A

Pneumococcus

  • gram positive cocci in pairs
  • colonise nose and throat
  • invade other sights (lungs causing pneumonia)
  • cough, dirty sputum, chest pain, fever
  • blood stream infection, meningitis, death
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26
Q

What does diplococci mean

A

Cocci in pairs

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27
Q

Viruses

A
  • depend on infection of host cell for metabolism and replication
  • protein core surrounding genetic material, protein coat and outer membrane
  • very small (need powerful electron microscope)
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28
Q

Acute infection

A

Norovirus infects hosts for days, causing diarrhoea and vomiting

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29
Q

Chronic infection

A

Hepatitis C causes liver inflammation for years

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30
Q

Latent infection

A

Herpesviruses can be dormant for decades before reactivating to cause disease

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31
Q

Varicella zoster virus

A

Chickenpox (latent infection)

  • rash and fever
  • virus becomes dormant in sensory nerve roots
  • reactivates years later as shingles (same rash, confined to dermatome) due to stress, lowered immunity ect
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32
Q

Dermatome

A

Area supplied by single sensory nerve

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33
Q

Epstein-Barr virus

A
  • usually causes mild illness (glandular fever)
  • infects immune system cells, B cells, and epithelial cells of nose and mouth
  • causes latent lifelong infection
  • contributes to certain cancers with other factors
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34
Q

Prions

A

PROteinaceous INfectious particles

  • lack nucleic acid - not a living organism
  • proteins are abnormal and accumulate (mainly in neural tissue)
  • very difficult to destroy- standard sterilisation doesn’t work
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35
Q

CJD

A

Prion - Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

  • rare fatal, degenerative neurological disease
  • transmitted via human growth hormone, surgical instruments and corneal grafts
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36
Q

Kuru

A

Prion

  • occurred in Papua New Guinea in 1950’s
  • spread by cannibalism (in the one tribe they would eat the bodies of dead relatives - spread from the brain
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37
Q

Reservoir

A

Habitat in which the agent normally lives, grows and multiplies

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38
Q

Endogenous infection

A

When normal microbial flora (found on skin, gut, upper airways and genital tract) gets into the wrong place- eg.UTI

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39
Q

Cystitis

A
  • infection of lower urinary tract
  • lower abdominal pain, urgency, dysuria, frequency
  • most commonly bacteria from gut flora
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40
Q

Dysuria

A

Painful urination

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41
Q

Exogenous infection

A

Communicable

  • person-to-person
  • non-human sources
  • environment
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42
Q

Endogenous route of transmission

A
  • migration
  • perforation
  • blood
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43
Q

Exogenous infection

A
  • contact
  • injuries
  • airborne
  • oral
  • blood-borne
  • sex
  • Mother-to-baby (vertical)
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44
Q

Migration- endogenous infection

A
  • bowel flora contaminates perineum
  • gains access to urethra
  • causes local infection
  • spreads to bladder, cystitis, and beyond to reach kidneys = UTI
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45
Q

Perforation -endogenous infection

A
  • diseases of bowel, especially colon-eg. cancer, diverticular disease
  • perforation of bowel wall leads to contamination of abdominal cavity with faecal flora
  • severe life-threatening infection
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46
Q

Blood spread- endogenous infection

A
  • endocarditis (infection of the heart)
  • dental work may allow mouth flora to enter blood stream
  • circulation of organisms allows them to reach distant sites
  • invasion can occur especially if heart valve tissue is abnormal
  • causes inflammation, ‘vegetation’ and structural damage of heart valves
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47
Q

Impetigo

A

Direct contact

  • superficial skin infection due to staphylococci or streptococci
  • spreads rapidly from person to person so need cover up
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48
Q

Indirect contact

A
  • micro-organisms can be transmitted via hands, equipment, furniture etc
  • major route of health-care associated infections
  • eg MRSA, clostridium difficile, norovirus gastroenteritis
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49
Q

Tetanus

A
  • bacteria (clostridium tetani) present in soil
  • contaminates wounds
  • releases toxin causing muscle spasm
  • prevented by vaccine
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50
Q

Influenza virus

A

Airborne infection

  • coughing and sneezing
  • droplets formed containing infectious viruses
  • inhaled by others
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51
Q

Food-borne/ oral

A
  • food prepared with poor hygiene
  • contaminate food with harmful bacteria
  • food poisoning
  • vomiting and diarrhoea
52
Q

Blood-borne infection

A

Hepatitis B

  • liver infection
  • some viruses spill into blood
  • transmission by exposure to blood (transfusion, sharing dirty needles)
53
Q

Sexual transmission

A

Chlamydia

  • unprotected sex
  • new partners
  • multiple partners
  • high risk (sex workers)
54
Q

Mother to baby (vertical)

A
  • during pregnancy (rubella)
  • at time of birth (herpes)
  • breast milk (HIV)
55
Q

HIV, hep B and hep C transmission

A
  • blood-borne
  • vertical- placental or breast feeding
  • sexual
56
Q

Infections requiring more than one step

A

Staphylococcus aureus

  • colonisation of skin
  • penetration of skin
57
Q

Factors that contribute to how serious an infection is

A
  • infectious dose
  • direct infection of cells/tissues
  • virulence factors and toxins
  • resistance to antibiotics
58
Q

Ebola

A

Direct infection and damage/destruction of cells

  • tissue damage
  • destroys blood vessels
  • decreased blood clotting ability- coagulation defects
  • impairment of immune system- no antibodies produced
59
Q

Cholera

A
  • severe watery diarrhoea (‘rice water’)
  • bacteria produce toxin
  • binds to gut lining cells- mucosa
  • massive loss of fluid and electrolytes
  • causes sever dehydration, kidney failure and death
60
Q

How does cholera cause illness

A
  • cholera toxin enters cells of gut lumen
  • activates adenyl cyclase increasing cAMP
  • reduces Na+ absorption
  • increases Cl- secretion
  • water and other electrolytes drawn into bowel lumen = diarrhoea
61
Q

Antibiotic resistance

A
  • micro-organisms readily mutate
  • frequently mutate to escape antibiotic use
  • more antibiotic use = more mutations
  • failure of antibiotic treatment
  • rate of new development of antibiotics is slower than the rate of mutation
62
Q

What is a superbug?

A

A super resistant bacteria that cannot be treated by antibiotics

63
Q

Environment factors in infection

A
  • geography
  • climate
  • poverty
  • public health infrastructure
  • distribution of other infection hosts- insects or other vectors
64
Q

Dengue fever

A

Virus infection

  • transmitted by Aedes mosquito
  • fever, rash and muscle pain
  • sever - bleeding, shock and multi organ failure
65
Q

Barriers to infection

A
  • skin and mucous membranes
  • stomach acid
  • native bacteria
  • immune system
  • genetics
  • behaviour
66
Q

Skin and mucous membranes can be compromised by …

A

Cuts - wound infection

Abrasions - conjuctivitis

67
Q

Stomach acid can be compromised by …

A
  • HCl - pH 2 (very few organisms can survive this)
  • commonly used drugs for stomach ulcer increase pH
  • patients more susceptible to food poisoning
68
Q

Native bacteria can be compromised by …

A
  • prevent colonisation by pathogenic bacteria as space taken up by our normal friendly bacteria
  • antibiotic treatment destroys the normal ‘friendly’ bacteria
  • pathogens can reproduce and cause disease as there now space for them
69
Q

Immune system can be compromised by …

A
  • treatment for other diseases - chemotherapy damages immune system
  • drugs to make immune system less active (corticosteroids)
70
Q

Immune system infection

A

HIV

  • infects white cells
  • makes most infections more common and more severe
  • causes infections by micro-organisms which don’t usually cause harm
  • opportunistic infection
71
Q

Genetics and infection

A

Inherited immunodeficiency

Genetics can protect against infection - sickle cell disease trait are protected against malaria

72
Q

Behaviours to increase infection risk

A
  • occupation
  • travel
  • recreation
  • sex
  • drugs
  • contacts
73
Q

stages of malaria in blood

A 
1- human bitten by anapholys mosquito 
2- injects sporozoite in blood stream 
3- these travel to liver 
4- then released into blood as merozite 
4- then turns into trophozoite and after into schizont 5- and finally bak into merozite so the cycle repeated
74
Q

what is rhinovirus?

A

common cold

trivial infection

75
Q

what are microbial flora ?

A

normal ‘friendly’ bacteria
everyone has living on them
bacteria vary according to site

76
Q

diseases due to overactive immune systems / autoimmune?

A

asthma
types arthritis
bowel inflammation

77
Q

what are the 4 major pathogenic groups?

A
  • bacteria
  • viruses
  • fungi
  • parasites
78
Q

what are examples of non specific symptoms?

A
  • sweat, chills, shivers
  • fever
  • rigors- episodes of uncontrolled shivering
  • loss weight/appetite
  • aching muscles/joints
79
Q

what are specific symptoms?

A

idea as to where infection coming from
according to source
- pneumonia : cough breathlessness
- meningitis: headache, neck stiffness

80
Q

why is the medical history of patient importnant

A 
may have (past)conditions making the more susceptible to infection 
may be suppressed by (past)drugs
81
Q

where do we examine a patient in infections?

A

whole patient - infections can effect whole body

- some produce signs that give away diagnosis - eg. chicken pox

82
Q

what basic tests can we carry out for infections

A
  • CRP- C reactive protein : marker of inflammation - protein increased in inflammation
  • U&E- urea and electrolyte levels (kidney function)
  • LFT: liver function tests (hep)
83
Q

what test would you take for tonsilitis?

A

throat swab

84
Q

patients in hospital with infection have what tests sent to lab?

A

blood and urine

sent for culture

85
Q

what would you test for pneumonia?

A

sputum- phlegm

86
Q

what would you test for gastroenteritis?

A

faeces

87
Q

do you take a sample before or after anitibiotic?

A

before

88
Q

what a lumbar puncture?

A

examination of cerebrospinal fluid for signs of meningitis

needle between 2 lumbar vertebra into spinal fluid

89
Q

What tests do Microbiologists do with the samples you send?

A
  • Antibody tests
  • Microscopy
  • Antigen detection
  • Culture
  • Antibiotic sensitivity testing
  • PCR
90
Q

what stain do we use to detect fungi?

A

calcofluor

91
Q

what stain do we use to detect TB

A

Ziehl Nelson

92
Q

whats an antibiotic sensitivity test?

A

Measurement of susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics
Cover whole surface of agar plate with bacteria
Discs with certain antibiotics
Zone of inhibition around disc shows which antibiotic works on that bacteria

93
Q

How do we detect organisms that we can’t grow in the laboratory?

A

•Identify part of the organism:

  • Proteins (often called antigens)
  • Detect DNA/RNA (by Polymerase Chain Reaction)
  • Identify the body’s immune response to the infection
  • Antibodies (proteins made to neutralise a specific infection)
  • IgM- acute infection
  • IgG- past infection/immunity
94
Q

what is antigen protein testing?

A
  • detection of protein fragments
  • rapid and cheap
  • detect acute infection
95
Q

what is the PCR and why do we use it

A
  • Polymerase Chain reaction
  • DNA/RNA identification by multiplying DNA/RNA
  • identifies unique genetic code sequence for specific infection
  • used for acute infection
96
Q

give examples of acute infections

A 
•	Meningitis
•	HIV
•	Hepatitis B and C
•	Respiratory viruses (e.g. influenza)
SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)
97
Q

what is antibody testing

A

Looks at antibodies produced in response to infection

98
Q

what classes of antibodies are tested?

A

•IgM
Initial antibody response
Appears within a week, usually disappears after a few months

•IgG
Later antibody response
Appears 10-14 days

99
Q

how do we get a false negative test?

A

test taken too late/early

takes time for antibodies to form

100
Q

what is Supportive therapy

A

treat symptoms:

eg. paracetamol or IV fluids

101
Q

what is Specific therapy

A

•Antimicrobials (= all drugs/chemicals that kill microorganisms)
•An antibiotic
for viral infections no specific treatment

102
Q

What ideally do we want an antimicrobial to do?

A
  • Selective toxicity (effective against microbe without harming host)
  • Bacteriocidal (= kills the organism) rather than bacteriostatic (= inhibits its growth)
  • No resistance – should be able to kill micororagnism
  • Good pharmacokinetics (i.e reach high level in body and stay there, allowing fewer doses/day)
  • No side effects
  • Not inactivated by enzymes secreted by microbes, or by the host
103
Q

what are broad spectrum antimicrobials?

A

kills lots of different organisms

104
Q

what are narrow spectrum antimicrobials?

A

kills few organisms

105
Q

Problems with antimicrobials

A
  • Variable spectrum of activity
  • Some cannot be given orally
  • Many cause side effects which can be serious, e.g. anaphylaxis (severe allergy)
  • Bacterial resistance
  • some antibiotics are now effective against very few organisms, e.g. penicillin
  • some organisms are now resistant to many antibiotics, e.g. MRSA
106
Q

how do we reduce transmission of food/water borne infections

A

sanitation
clean water supplies
food prep hygiene

107
Q

how do we reduce transmission of contact infections- eg.MRSA

A

hand washing
gloves
gowns
masks

108
Q

how do we reduce transmission of airborne infections eg. TB

A

isolate patient in negative pressure room- filters out-going air

109
Q

how do we Protect the potential host

A

•Prophylactic treatments treat before infection- antimalarials
•Antimalarials
•Antibiotics given to very immunosuppressed patients
- immunisations

110
Q

How do you make a diagnosis of an infection?

A

History - symptoms, travel, medical history, occupation, recreation, vaccination
Examination - infections can effect every body system
Investigation - e.g. LFT, urea and electrolyte levels, C-reactive protein
Testing

111
Q

How is microbiology used in diagnosing an infection?

A 
Antibody detection - IgM (marker of acute infection) or IgG (past infection or immunity)
Culture 
Microscopy
PCR
Antigen detection
Antibiotic sensitivity testing
112
Q

How are infections treated?

A

Supportive therapy - e.g. to treat symptoms

Specific therapy - antimicrobials and antibiotics

113
Q

Name some examples of antibiotics.

A
  • Penicillin - derived from mould

- Mupirocin - produced by bacteria pseudomonas fluorescens (treats MRSA)

114
Q

What makes a good antimicrobial drug?

A 
Selective toxicity
Bacteriocidal
No resistance
Good pharmacokinetics
No side effects
Not inactivated by enzymes secreted by microbe or host
115
Q

What are some problems with antimicrobials?

A

Variable spectrum of activity
Some can’t be given orally
Many cause serious side effects
Bacterial resistance

116
Q

Name some ways that antibacterials work?

A 
Block cell wall synthesis
Block DNA replication
Block DNA-dependent RNA polymerase
Inhibit protein synthesis
Cell membrane inhibitors
117
Q

How can infection be prevented?

A

Reduce pathogens in the environment - clean drinking water, hygienic food preparation
Prevent transmission - sanitation, hand washing, isolation of infected individuals
Protect the potential host - antimalarials, immunisation etc

118
Q

Which infections currently do not have a vaccine?

A

Meningococcus group B
Hep C
HIV
Malaria

119
Q

Lumbar puncture

A

Sample of spinal fluid

Suspected bacterial meningitis should be confirmed by lumbar puncture

120
Q

Faeces culture

A

Investigation of suspected gastroenteritis

Brown top universal with spoon

121
Q

Fluid culture

A

Fluid (like material obtained from sterile sites or from drains) should be collected in a sterile universal container with a white top

122
Q

MC&S Culture Swabs

A

Cultures of swabs of material from wounds and other superficial parts of the body are used to identify the bacterial causative agent

123
Q

Respiratory culture

A

Investigation of lower respiratory tract bacterial infections including pneumonia

124
Q

Throat swab

A

Used for performing PCR and culture

125
Q

MRSA culture

A

MRSA screening is aimed to prevent transmission of MRSA by identifying patients who are colonised or infected

year 1 flash cards (23 decks)

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