Topic 6: Family Diversity

Question 1

Functionalist perspective on modernism and the nuclear family

What is the functionalist perspective on modernism and the nuclear family (use sociologist)

Answer 1

Functionalism has been described as ‘modernist’ (they see modern society as having a clear and predictable structure). They see the nuclear family as being the best family type as it helps to perform certain essential functions.

Parsons - there is a similarity between the nuclear family and modern society. Parsons sees the nuclear family as uniquely suited to meeting the needs of modern society such as a geographical/ social mobile workforce and for primary socialisation/ stabilisation of adult personalities.

This helps to keep society stable and keep society effective.

Because the nuclear family is able to perform these functions it is the family type that is best suited to modern society ‘functionally fit’.

Other family types are dysfunctional, abnormal and deviant as they are less able to perform the functions required of the family.

Question 2

New Rights perspective on modernism and the nuclear family

What is the New Rights perspective on modernism and the nuclear family

Answer 2

The New Right has been described as ‘modernist’ (they see modern society as having a clear and predictable structure). They see the nuclear family as being the best family type as it helps to perform certain essential functions.

They have a conservative and anti-feminist perspective on the family.

They oppose family diversity e.g cohabitation, gay marriage and lone parenthood and believe that the only correct family type is the traditional nuclear family with men as the breadwinner and women being the homemaker.

The New Right believe that the nuclear family is natural and based on biological differences between men and women.

They argue that the decline of the traditional nuclear family and the growth of family diversity are the cause of many social problems.

Question 3

New Rights perspective on modernism and the nuclear family

Why don’t the New Right like lone parent families?

Answer 3

The New Right see the growth of lone-parent families as being harmful to children.

e.g Lone mothers cannot discipline their children properly - Speaking in Standard English and doing well at school were often viewed with suspicion by their peers and seen as ‘selling out’ to the white establishment so they don’t try.

e.g Lone-parent families leave boys without an adult male role model, resulting in educational failure, delinquency and social instability. Sewell (2009) - no father figure -leads to behavioural problems in adolescents as they haven’t been taught how to behave (men instil the role of being firm, fair, respectful and non-abusive discipline).

e.g Such families are also likely to be poorer and thus a burden on the welfare state and taxpayers

Question 4

The New Rights perspective on the cohabitation vs marriage

What is the New Rights perspective on the cohabitation vs marriage

Answer 4

The main reason for lone-parent families is because of the breakdown of relationships between cohabiting couples. Benson (2006) - found that the rate of family breakdown was much higher in cohabiting couples (20%), compared with 6% among married couples.

Only marriage can provide a stable environment in which to bring up children e.g Benson (2010; 2011) - couples are more stable when they are married such as the rate of divorce among married couples is lower than the rate of breakups among cohabiting couples.

Marriage is more stable as it requires a deliberate commitment to each other, whereas cohabitation allows partners to avoid commitment and responsibility.

Benson argues that government needs to encourage couples to marry by means of policies that support marriage.

Question 5

Criticism of the New Rights perspective on the nuclear family

Answer 5

Feminist: Oakley (1997) - the New Right assumes that husbands and wives’ roles are fixed by biology whereas cross-cultural studies show great variation in the roles men and women perform within the family such as men being more domestic and doing more housework.

Feminists argue that the conventional nuclear family favoured by the New Right is based on the patriarchal oppression of women and is a crucial cause of gender inequality. It prevents women working, keeps them financially dependent on men, and denies them an equal say in decision-making.

The New Right view that marriage equals commitment, while cohabitation does not, has been challenged. However, some people see cohabitation as temporary whereas others see it as a permanent alternative showing that it is still a life long commitment to be with one person (same as marriage)

Question 6

The Neo-conventional family:

What is the Traditional and Neo-conventional family (use sociologist)

Answer 6

Chester (1985) - argues there is a move the traditional or conventional nuclear family to the ‘neo-conventional family’.

The Traditional/Conventional Family – (declining) the Traditional nuclear family with ‘segregated roles’ e.g male breadwinner and female homemaker.

The Neo-Conventional Family (the new norm) – a dual-earner family in which both spouses go out to work.

Question 7

The neo-conventional family:

What is the Neo-conventional family (use sociologist)

Answer 7

Chester (1985) - argues there is the move from the traditional or conventional nuclear family to the ‘neo-conventional family’.

Neo-conventional family - family where both spouses work (dual-earner) not just the husband.

Chester argues that most people choose not to live in alternative family types compared to the nuclear showing how the nuclear family remains the ideal to which most people aspire.

Question 8

The Neo-conventional family:

How can it be argued that the nuclear family is still the most dominant family type (use sociologist)

Answer 8

Chester (1985) argues that although many people are not part of a nuclear family at any one time those who are currently living in one-person household e.g widows, divorcees were part of a nuclear family in the past or will be.

Statistics on household composition are therefore misleading because they’re a snapshot of a single moment in time. They don’t show us the fact that most people will spend a major part of their lives in a nuclear family.

e.g. Most adults marry and have children. Most children are raised by their two birth parents.

e.g. Cohabitation has increased, but for most couples it is a temporary phase before marrying. Most couples get married if they have children.

e.g. Most marriages continue until death. Divorce has increased, but most divorcees remarry.

The extent and importance of family diversity has been exaggerated. Chester sees the nuclear family as dominant.

Question 9

The 5 types of family diversity:

What are the 5 types of family diversity (use sociologist)

Answer 9

The Rapoports (1982) - believe that we have moved away from the traditional nuclear family as the dominant family type, to a range of different types.

These family types are:

Organisational diversity - The differences in the ways family roles are organised

Social class diversity -differences in family structure based on income differences between households of different social classes.

Life stage diversity - family structures differ according to the stage reached in the life cycle

Generational diversity - older and younger generations have different attitudes and experiences that reflect the periods in which they have lived.

Question 10

Post modernism and family diversity:

What are post-modernists views on the society

Answer 10

Postmodernists believe that we no longer live in ‘modern’ society with predictable and orderly structures such as the nuclear family.

They believe that society has entered a new postmodern stage.

In postmodern society, there is no dominant, stable family structure e.g the nuclear family.

Instead, family structures have many different types and people have more choice in their lifestyles, personal relationships and family structures.

Question 11

Post modernism and family diversity:

What are the advantages/disadvantages of having greater diversity and choice with family types

Answer 11

Advantage - People have more freedom to choose the kind of family and personal relationships that meet their needs.

Disadvantage - More freedom/ choice in relationships means greater risk of instability and means that relationships are more likely to break down.

Question 12

Post modernist perspective on families

What are Post-Modernists views on the family (use sociologists)

Answer 12

Stacey (1998) argues that because there is more freedom and choice this has massively benefitted women as it enables them to free themselves from patriarchal oppression and to shape their family in a way that meet their needs.

She found that many of the women she interviewed had rejected the traditional housewife-mother role. These women had often created new types of family that better suited their needs. e.g ‘divorce-extended family’ (whose members are connected by divorce rather than marriage).

This helps to show that postmodern families are diverse and that their shape depends on choices people make about how to live their lives e.g. whether to get divorced, cohabit, come out as gay etc.

Morgan (1996; 2011) - there is not point making large-scale generalisations about ‘the family’ as a family is people choose to call their family. Sociologists should focus their attention on how people create their own diverse family lives and practices.

Question 13

The individualisation thesis:

What is the individualisation thesis? (use sociologists)

Answer 13

Giddens and Beck show the effects of increasing individual choice on families and relationships (individualisation thesis). This change has had a massive impact for family relationships and family diversity

The individualisation thesis argues that traditional social structures such as class, gender and family have lost their influence over us

in the past people’s lives were defined by fixed roles that prevented them from choosing how they wanted to live life. However in todays society people are free to live how they want to. There is no reason to conform.

According to the individualisation thesis we have become freed or from traditional roles and structures allowing us to have freedom to choose how we lead our lives.

Question 14

Choice and equality

What are Post-modernist views on choice and equality (use sociologist)

Answer 14

Giddens (1992) - The family and marriage have been changed by greater choice and a more equal relationship between men and women.

Giddens - In the past, traditional family relationships were held together by laws and religion condemning divorce and sex outside marriage.

However couples now are free to define their relationship themselves instead of having roles enforced by the law or religion e.g couple nowadays don’t have to marry to have children and divorce is accessible.

Question 15

Choice and equality

How has greater choice lead to men and women being more equal in their relationship (use sociologist)

Answer 15

Giddens (1992) - The family and marriage have been changed by greater choice and a more equal relationship between men and women.

Contraception has allowed sex and intimacy rather than reproduction to become the main reason for having a relationship.

Women have gained independence as a result of feminism and because of greater opportunities in education and work leading them to be equal to men.

Question 16

The pure relationship:

What is the pure relationship (use sociologist)

Answer 16

Pure relationship - When people decide to carry on their relationship because it meets their emotional and sexual needs. The relationship will only carry on being successful as long as the relationship carries on meeting the individual’s partner’s needs and they benefit from it and if it doesn’t they move on.

Giddens sees the pure relationship as a key feature of late modern society where relationships are no longer found by traditional norms.

Couples stay together because of love or sexual attraction, rather than tradition or a sense of duty. This means that people are free to choose to enter and to leave relationships as they see fit. However, because there is more choice personal relationships inevitably become less stable.

Rather than relationships being permanent they become more flitting and this leads to greater family diversity such as lone-parent families and stepfamilies.

Question 17

Same-sex as pioneers

What do Post-Modernists think of Same-Sex relationships (use sociologist)

Answer 17

Giddens - same-sex relationships lead to new family types and create more democratic and equal relationships

This is because same-sex relationships are not influenced by tradition like heterosexual relationships are such as men being the bread-winner and women being the homemaker.

This allows same-sex couples to develop relationships based on choice rather than on traditional roles and create a family that they want to without conforming to pre-existing norms in the way that heterosexual couples have traditionally had to do

Weston (1992) found that same-sex couples created supportive families a choice from among friends, former lovers and biological kin (chosen family)

Question 18

The negotiated family:

What is the negotiated family

Answer 18

Negotiated families are families that do not conform to the traditional family norm, but vary according to the wishes and expectations of their members

Beck and Beck-Gernsheim
(1995) - gender equality and individualism has led to the Negotiated families. They enter the relationship on an equal basis.

Although the negotiated family is more equal than the patriarchal family, it is less stable as people are free to leave if their needs are not met.

Because of this instability leads to greater family diversity by creating more lone-parent families, one person households, re-marriages and so on.

Question 19

The negotiated family:

What trends has the patriarchal family been undermined by (use sociologist)

Answer 19

Beck (1992) argues that we live in a ‘risk society’ where tradition has less influence and people have more choice.

Greater gender equality - has challenged male domination in all aspects of life. Women now expect equality both at work and in marriage.

Greater individualism - people’s actions are influenced more by their self-interest than by a sense of obligation to others.

Question 20

The zombie family

What is the zombie family (use sociologist)

Answer 20

In today’s society people turn to the family in the hope of finding security however because relationships are uncertain family relationships are also subject to greater risk and uncertainty.

Beck calls this the ‘zombie family’ as it appears to be alive, but in reality it is dead.

People want family to be security in an insecure world, but today’s family cannot provide this because of its own instability.

Question 21

Criticisms of the individualisation thesis from the personal life perspective

Answer 21

The individualisation thesis exaggerates how much choice people have about family relationships today. Budgeon (2011) - this reflects the neoliberal ideology that individuals today have complete freedom of choice. However in reality traditional norms limit people’s relationship choices have not weakened.

The individualisation thesis sees people independent individuals. It ignores the fact that that our decisions and choices about personal relationships are made within a social context of how we have been brought up and who we surround ourselves with.

The individualisation thesis ignores the importance of structural factors such as social class inequalities and patriarchal gender norms in limiting and shaping our relationship choices.

May - because Giddens’ and Beck’s view of the individual is as ‘an idealised version of a white m/c man’. They ignore that not everyone can exercise their choice about relationships.

Question 22

The connectedness thesis

What is the connectedness thesis (use sociologist)

Answer 22

Personal life perspective sociologist Smart proposes an alternative to the individualisation thesis (the connectedness thesis).

Smart argues that humans are social beings whose choices are always made ‘within a web of connectedness’ (we live within a network of existing relationships and have interwoven personal histories and these strongly influence our choices in relationships).

Finch and Mason’s (1993) found that, although individuals can negotiate the relationships they want, they are also fixed within obligations that restrict their freedom of choice.

This challenges the notion of the pure relationship. Families usually include more than just the couples that like Giddens suggests and couple relationships are not always ‘pure’ relationships that we can walk away from at will.

Question 23

Class and gender:

How does class and gender affect family relationships

Answer 23

The connectedness thesis also emphasises the role of the class and gender structures in which we are apart of.

Both class and gender limit our choices about relationships, identities and families people can create.

e.g. After divorce, gender norms dictate that women should have custody of the children which limits their opportunity to form new relationships. However, men are freer to start new relationships and second families.

e.g Men are better paid than women and this gives them greater freedom and choice in relationships.

Question 24

The power of structures

How do the power of structures affect family structures (use sociologist)

Answer 24

May argues, power structures aren’t disappearing, they’re being re-shaped e.g. though there is growing equality between men and women while women it is far from equal.

Einasdottir (2011) - while lesbianism is now tolerated norms favouring heterosexuality means that many lesbians feel forced to remain ‘in the closet and this limits their choices about their relationships and lifestyles.

This shows how the personal life perspective doesn’t believe that increased diversity has been a result of greater freedom of choice, as Beck and Giddens do.

Instead, shows the importance of social structures in shaping the freedoms people have to create their own family types.

As well as this the personal life perspective emphasises the importance of structural factors such as patriarchy and class inequality in restricting people’s choices and shaping their family lives.