Topic 5: Changing Family Patterns

Question 1

Family patterns:

How have family patterns changed in the past 50 years? (There are 7 examples)

Answer 1

The number of traditional nuclear family households has fallen.

Divorce rates have increased.

People are marrying later in life.

More couples are cohabiting.

Same-sex relationships can be legally recognised through civil partnerships or marriages.

Women are having fewer children and having them later.

There are more stepfamilies, and more couples without children.

Question 2

Divorce:

How has divorce changed over the years? (use statistics)

Answer 2

Since the 1980s there has been a great increase in the number of divorces doubled between 1961-69 doubled again by 1972 and in 1993 peaked at 165,000 by 2012 it fell to 118,000 . this rate means that around 40% of marriages end in divorce.

One reason for the fall in the number of divorces since the 1990s is that fewer people are marrying in the first place and are choosing to cohabit instead.

About 65% of applications for divorce now come from women. This is in sharp contrast to the situation in the past e.g. in 1946, only 37% of petitions came from women.

Question 3

Divorce:

What kinds of law made divorce easier?

Answer 3

Widening the grounds for divorce e.g. No fault divorce 2022 - there were no huge issues that led to divorce they just didn’t want be marry that person anymore

Question 4

Divorce:

What other alternatives are there to divorce?

Answer 4

Desertion - where one partner leaves the other but the couple remain legally married

Legal separation - where a court separates the financial and legal affairs of the couple but where they remain married and are not free to re-marry.

‘Empty shell’ marriage - where the couple continue to live under the same roof but remain married in name only.

Question 5

Explanations for the increase in divorce:

How have changes in the law increased the rate of divorces?

Answer 5

When the grounds were equalised for men and women in 1923, there was sharp rise in the number of divorce petitions from women.

The widening of the grounds in 1971 to ‘irretrievable breakdown’ made divorce easier to doubled the rates of divorce.

Means that people have more access to divorce but doesn’t explain why people choose to divorce.

Question 6

Explanations for the increase in divorce:

How have declining stigma and changing attitudes lead to an increase in divorce

Answer 6

Churches tended to condemn divorce and refuse to re-marry divorcees e.g. Mitchell and Goody (1997) since the 1960s has been a decline in the stigma attached to divorce.

As stigma declines and divorce becomes more socially acceptable, couples become more to divorce. Divorce is now more normalised it and rather than being seen as shameful it seen as unfortunate.

Question 7

Rising expectations of marriage:

How has the rising expectation of marriage lead to more increased divorce rates? (use sociologist)

Answer 7

Fletcher (1966) argues that rising divorce rates are due to higher expectations of marriage today, where couples seek personal fulfilment and romantic love.

In contrast, past marriages were often based on economic or familial reasons, with lower expectations, making couples less likely to divorce.

Question 8

Criticism:

How can it be seen that the rising of expectation in marriage hasn’t lead to more divorce? (use sociologist)

Answer 8

Fletcher argues that even though that divorce rates are high marriage still continues to be popular.

Most adults still marry, and the high rate of remarriage after divorce suggests that while divorcees may be dissatisfied with a particular partner, they have not rejected marriage as an institution.

Question 9

Criticism:

How do feminists argue that functionalists see marriage too optimistically?

Answer 9

Feminists argue that this is too rosy a view. They argue that the oppression of women within the family is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce, but functionalists ignore this.

Although functionalists offer an explanation of rising divorce rates, they fail to explain why it is mainly women rather than men who seek divorce.

And although most adults do marry this has significantly dropped e.g. in 2012 - 250,000 married compared to 1972 where 450,000 married

Question 10

Women’s increased financial dependence:

How has women becoming more financially independent lead to an increase in divorce? (use sociologist)

Answer 10

Allan and Crow argue that as women are now financially independent through paid work, they are less dependent on marriage for economic support, making them more willing to seek divorce if there is conflict or a lack of love.

Women today are much more likely to be in paid work.
The proportion of women working rose from 53% in 1971 to 67% in 2013.

Girls’ greater success in education now helps them achieve better-paid jobs than previous generations e.g. Department of Education (2013) - At AS and A-level girls get higher grades than boys e.g. 46.8% of girls gained A or B grades at A-level, but only 42.2% of boys.

Question 11

Feminist explanation for the increase of divorce:

What are feminist views of why there is increase of divorce? (use sociologist)

Answer 11

Feminists argue that women’s “dual burden” of paid work and domestic duties creates marital conflict and higher divorce rates, while marriage remains patriarchal, with men benefiting from women’s unpaid labour.

Hochschild (1997) argues that many women find work more fulfilling than home life, as they feel valued at work, while men’s reluctance to share housework creates frustration and instability in marriages.

Rushton (2007) found that mothers with a “dual burden” of paid and domestic work are more likely to divorce than stay-at-home mothers. However, if a working wife’s husband shares domestic duties, divorce rates are similar to those in traditional marriages.

Question 12

Key word:

What is the individualisation thesis?

Answer 12

That in modern society, individuals prioritise personal fulfilment and self-interest over traditional norms, making relationships more flexible but also more fragile, contributing to higher divorce rates.

Question 13

Modernity and individualisation:

How has modernity and individualisation lead to an increase in divorce? (use sociologist)

Answer 13

Beck (1992) and Giddens (1992) argue that in modern society, traditional norms like lifelong marriage lose their influence, leading to greater individualism (people seek personal fulfilment rather than staying in relationships out of duty).

Giddens calls this the “pure relationship,” which exists solely to satisfy both partners. The rise in divorce normalises it and reinforces the belief that marriage is about personal fulfilment. (IF NOT HAPPY FIND SOMONE ELSE)

Question 14

The meaning of a high divorce rate:

What is the meaning of high divorce rate according to The New Right?

Answer 14

The New Right views a high divorce rate as harmful because it undermines marriage and the traditional nuclear family, which they see as essential for social stability.

They argue it leads to more welfare-dependent single mothers, absent male role models for boys, and poorer outcomes for children in terms of health and education

Question 15

The meaning of a high divorce rate:

What is the meaning of high divorce rate according to feminists?

Answer 15

Feminists see a high divorce rate as desirable because it shows that women are breaking free from the oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family.

Question 16

The meaning of a high divorce rate:

What is the meaning of high divorce rate according to post modernists.

Answer 16

Postmodernists and the individualisation thesis view a high divorce rate as a sign of individuals’ freedom to end relationships that no longer meet their needs, seeing it as a key factor in the growth of family diversity.

Question 17

The meaning of a high divorce rate:

What is the meaning of high divorce rate according to functionalists?

Answer 17

Functionalists argue that a high divorce rate is not necessarily a threat to marriage as a social institution.

It is simply the result of people’s higher expectations of marriage today.

The high rate of re-marriage shows people’s continuing commitment to the idea of marriage

Question 18

The meaning of a high divorce rate:

What is the meaning of high divorce rate according to interactionalists? (use sociologist)

Answer 18

Interactionalists aim to understand what divorce means to the individual. Morgan (1996) argues that we cannot generalise about the meaning of divorce because every individual interpretation of it is different.

Question 19

The meaning of a high divorce rate:

What is the meaning of high divorce rate according to the personal life perspective?

Answer 19

The personal life perspective views divorce as “normalised” and a manageable life transition, despite challenges like financial issues and reduced contact with non-resident parents, rather than a major social problem. (Smart 2011)

Question 20

Patterns of marriage:

How has the pattern of marriage changed over the years?

Answer 20

Fewer people are marrying: marriage rates are at their lowest since the 1920s. In 2012, there were 175,000 first marriages for both partners - less than half the number for 1970.

People are marrying later: the average age of first marriage rose by seven years between 1971 and 2012, when it stood at 32 years for men and 30 for women.

Couples are less likely to marry in church. In 1981, 60% of weddings were conducted with religious ceremonies, but by 2012 this had fallen to 30%.

Question 21

Reasons for changing patterns in marriage:

How has marriage changed over the years e.g. changing attitudes to marriage

Answer 21

Attitudes toward marriage have changed, with less pressure to marry and more freedom for individuals to choose their relationship style.

The belief that the quality of a relationship is more important than its legal status has become widespread, and the norm of everyone needing to marry has weakened.

Question 22

Reasons for changing patterns in marriage:

How has marriage changed over the years e.g. secularisation

Answer 22

As secularisation increases and the influence of churches declines, people feel freer to choose not to marry.

e.g. The 2001 Census showed that only 3% of young people without religion were married, compared to 17% of those with a religion.

Question 23

Reasons for changing patterns in marriage:

How has marriage changed over the years e.g. declining stigma

Answer 23

The stigma surrounding alternatives to marriage, such as cohabitation, remaining single, and having children outside of marriage, has declined.

In 1989, 70% believed couples with children should marry, but by 2012, only 42% held that view.

Question 24

Reasons for changing patterns in marriage:

How has marriage changed over the years e.g. changes in the position of women

Answer 24

With improved educational and career opportunities, many women are less economically dependent on men, giving them more freedom to choose not to marry.

Additionally, the feminist view of marriage as an oppressive patriarchal institution may also discourage some women from marrying.

Question 25

Key word:

What does cohabitation mean?

Answer 25

An unmarried couple in a sexual relationship living together.

Question 26

Cohabitation:

What does cohabitation look like in the UK?

Answer 26

While the number of marriages decrease, the number of people cohabiting increases. ALL THESE STATISTICS SHOW HOW COHABITATION IS AN ALTERNATIVE TO MARRIAGE

There are 2.9 million cohabiting heterosexual couples in Britain and 69,000 same-sex cohabiting
couples. About one in eight adults are now cohabiting - double the number in 1996.

About a fifth of all those cohabiting are ‘serial cohabitants’ who have had one or more previous cohabitations.

Question 27

Reasons for cohabitation:

What are the reasons for cohabitation?

Answer 27

Increased cohabitation rates are a result of the decline in stigma attached to sex outside marriage. In 1989, only 44% of people agreed that ‘premarital sex is not wrong at all’, but 65% took this view by 2012. Secularisation - Most religions forbid sex before marriage

Increased career opportunities for women may mean they have less need for the financial security of marriage and are freer to opt for cohabitation e.g. Equal Pay Act (1970)

Question 28

The relationship between cohabitation and marriage:

How do cohabitation and marriage link?

Answer 28

Although cohabitation is increasing while marriage is decreasing, the relationship between the two is not clear

For some couples cohabitation is just a step up on the way to getting married whereas for others it is a permanent alternative to marriage

Chester argues that for most people cohabitation is part of the process of getting married e.g. Cast (2006) found that 75% of cohabitating couples say that they expect o marry each other.

Question 29

A trial marriage?

How can cohabitation be seen as a trial marriage? (use sociologist)

Answer 29

Cohabitation can be a trial for marriage, a temporary phase, or a permanent alternative, with some couples seeking a more equal relationship than traditional marriage.

Bejin (2005) argues that cohabitation is a conscious attempt to create a more personally negotiated and equal relationship than a conventional marriage - Shelton and John (1993) - found than women who cohabit do less housework than their married counterparts.

Question 30

Same-sex relationships:

How has same-sex relationships changed over the years?

Answer 30

Social acceptance of same-sex relationships has grown, with legal changes such as the decriminalisation of male homosexual acts in 1967, equalising the age of consent, and treating all couples more equally in social policy.

Since 2002, cohabiting couples have had the same adoption rights as married couples, and the Civil Partnership Act (2004) granted same-sex couples similar legal rights to married couples.

Same-sex marriage has been legal since 2014. These changes reflect a broader acceptance of diverse family structures, including chosen families.

Question 31

Key word:

What does chosen families mean?

Answer 31

Chosen families are formed through close friendships, providing emotional support and stability similar to traditional families, particularly in the LGBTQ+ community.

Question 32

Chosen families:

How have chosen families affected changes in family patterns (use sociologists)

Answer 32

Weeks (1999) argues that increased social acceptance has led to more stable same-sex cohabitation and relationships, with gays creating “chosen families” based on friendship as kinship, offering similar security to heterosexual families.

Allan and Crow suggest that the lack of legal frameworks, such as marriage or civil partnerships, until recently meant same-sex couples had to negotiate their commitment and responsibilities more, making their relationships more flexible but potentially less stable than heterosexual ones.

Question 33

One person households:

How have one-person households affected changes in family patterns (use sociologist)

Answer 33

The number of people living alone has significantly increased, with nearly three in ten households (7.7 million people) being single-person households in 2013, nearly three times the number in 1961.

40% of these households are over 65, and pensioner one-person households have doubled since 1961, while non-pensioner households have tripled. Men under 65 are the most likely group to live alone.

Question 34

One-person households:

Why has there been an increase in one-person households? (use sociologist)

Answer 34

The rise in separation and divorce has led to more one-person households, particularly among men under 65, as children typically stay with their mother after divorce.

The decline in marriage rates and later marriages has also increased the number of people remaining single. Since 1971, the proportion of single adults has risen by half, with the deliberate decision to live alone.

Question 35

Key word:

What does living apart together mean?

Answer 35

Those who have a partner but choose not to live together.

Question 36

Living apart together:

How does living apart together help to show changes in family patterns? (use sociologist)

Answer 36

Duncan and Phillips (2013) found that about 10% of adults are in “living apart together” (LAT) relationships, where they are in a significant relationship but not married or cohabiting.

This reflects a trend towards less formalized relationships and “families of choice.” While some couples are unable to live together due to financial or practical reasons, others choose LAT for personal or relationship reasons.

Public attitudes have become more accepting, with many seeing LATs as a valid relationship choice, though it doesn’t reject traditional relationships.

Question 37

Key word:

What does childbearing mean?

Answer 37

The process of having children, including pregnancy, childbirth, and raising children.

Question 38

Parent and Children:

What is childbearing like is in the UK?

Answer 38

Nearly half (47%) of all children are now born outside of marriage, more than double the rate in 1986, with most of these births jointly registered by cohabiting parents.

While women are having fewer children than in the 20th century, the average number per woman fell from 2.95 in 1964 to a low of 1.63 in 2001, before slightly rising to 1.94 in 2010.

Question 39

Reasons for change:

Why has childbearing changed?

Answer 39

The increase in births outside marriage is due to a decline in stigma and a rise in cohabitation, with only 28% of 25-34 year olds believing marriage should come before parenthood.

Women are having children later, having smaller families, and more are remaining childless, reflecting greater freedom to pursue careers or choose not to have children at all.

Question 40

Lone parent families:

How do lone-parent families show a change in family patterns?

Answer 40

Over 90% of these families are headed by lone mothers. In a court children are more likely to go their mum.

A child living with a lone parent is 2x more likely to live in poverty compared to a child with two parents.

Question 41

Reasons for patterns:

Reasons for lone-parent families (use sociologist)

Answer 41

The rise in lone-parent families is due to higher divorce rates, separation, and more never-married women having children, with less stigma around births outside marriage.

These families are often female-headed because of societal beliefs about women’s nurturing roles, custody laws favouring mothers, and men’s reluctance to take on childcare.

W/C women may choose independence, often due to abuse, while feminist ideas and greater opportunities for women have also contributed to the increase in never-married lone mothers.

Question 42

Lone parent, welfare state and poverty:

How do the New Right view lone-parent families (use sociologist)

Answer 42

Murray (1984), a New Right thinker, argues that the growth of lone-parent families is due to an over-generous welfare state that encourages irresponsible behaviour, such as having children without the means to support them.

He believes abolishing welfare benefits would reduce this “dependency culture.” (where individuals rely on government welfare instead of seeking self-sufficiency, often criticized for encouraging a lack of motivation or responsibility.)

Question 43

Criticism:

How are the New Right wrong about lone parent families?

Answer 43

However, critics argue that welfare benefits are not generous, and lone-parent families are often in poverty due to factors such as lack of affordable childcare e.g. on average it costs (£2,629), inadequate benefits.

Question 44

Step families:

How do Step families show a change in family patterns?

Answer 44

Stepfamilies make up over 10% of families with dependent children in Britain, often involving children from one or both parents’ previous relationships.

While stepfamilies are similar to first families, they are more likely to experience poverty and may face challenges like divided loyalties and tensions with non-resident parents.

However, stepparents’ involvement in childcare is generally positive, and there is diversity within stepfamilies, with some facing few tensions.

Question 45

Reasons for step families:

What are the reasons for step-families? (use sociologist)

Answer 45

Stepfamilies are often created due to factors like divorce, separation, and single parents forming new partnerships.

Children are more likely to remain with their mother, and stepparents, particularly stepfathers, are at a greater risk of poverty due to additional children and financial responsibilities from previous relationships.

Tensions in stepfamilies may arise from a lack of clear social norms about roles and behaviours within these families.

Question 46

Black families:

How do Black families show a change in family patterns?

Answer 46

Black Caribbean and Black African communities have a higher proportion of lone-parent households, with over half of families headed by a black person being lone-parent families, compared to lower rates in Asian families and the general population.

While some argue this reflects family disorganization linked to slavery or high male unemployment, others, like Heidi Safia Mirza and Tracey Reynolds, suggest it reflects the high value placed on female independence in black communities and that many seemingly lone-parent families are actually in stable, non-cohabiting relationships.

Question 47

Asian households:

How do Asian families show a change in family patterns?

Answer 47

Bangladeshi, Pakistani, and Indian households tend to be larger than those of other ethnic groups, with an average of 3 to 4 people per household, partly due to a younger age profile and cultural values around the extended family.

While most are nuclear households, extended families were more common in early migration periods, providing important support, and today many Asian households maintain strong kinship networks, with frequent visits and nearby relatives, particularly among Sikhs, Muslims, and Hindus.

Question 48

The extended family:

What is the extended family like in the UK?

Answer 48

The extended family, once dominant in pre-industrial societies, has largely declined in modern Britain, with the classic three-generation household now rare.

Chamberlain’s (1999) research on Caribbean families, show that extended family networks continue to provide important support, especially in childrearing.

These networks remain valuable for emotional and practical support, as shown in Colin Bell’s (1968) research on both working-class and middle-class families.

Question 49

The beanpole family:

How does the beanpole family show a change in family patterns? (use sociologist)

Answer 49

The “beanpole family,” as described by Julia Brannen (2003), is a type of extended family that is vertically extended across multiple generations (e.g., grandparents, parents, and children) but not horizontally, meaning it lacks aunts, uncles, and cousins.

This structure is often seen due to increased life expectancy, leading to more surviving grandparents, and smaller family sizes, which result in fewer siblings and thus fewer horizontal ties.

Research by Charles and Bell suggests that while contact between mothers and daughters remains strong, support and contact between siblings has declined, reflecting the “beanpole” structure.

Question 50

Obligation to relatives:

How does obligation to family link to changes in family patterns?

Answer 50

Despite the rise of the “beanpole family,” many people still feel a sense of obligation to support extended kin, with women, especially daughters, expected to provide more help than men.

Reciprocity is important, as people feel the need to return help to avoid feelings of indebtedness.

While modern extended families differ from the traditional model, they continue to offer emotional and practical support, especially in times of crisis.