Topic 1: Couples

Question 1

What were couples like in the past?

Answer 1

In the 19” century, the Victorian family was very patriarchal
e.g. when a woman got married, anything that the woman owned became her husband’s.

As well as this , the grounds for divorce were very unequal e.g. a man could gain a divorce on the grounds of his wife’s adultery, but a woman had to ‘prove’ her husband’s abuse or another ‘marital’ offence in addition to adultery.

Question 2

The domestic division of labour:

What is the domestic division of labour?

Answer 2

The domestic division of labour - the roles that men and women play in relation to housework, childcare and paid work.

Sociologists are interested in whether men and women share domestic tasks equally.

Question 3

The domestic division of labour:

What does instrumental role mean? (use sociologist)

Answer 3

Parsons’ (1955) there is a clear division of labour between spouses.

The instrumental role is a functionalist idea of the male’s function in the family.

The instrumental role’s purpose is to discipline and provide economic support for the family. Males who fulfil this role are considered to be powerful in the relationship as they make all the decisions for the family. He is the breadwinner.

Question 4

The domestic division of labour:

What does expressive role mean? (use sociologist)

Answer 4

Parsons’ (1955) there is a clear division of labour between spouses.

The expressive role is a functionalist idea of the female’s function in the family.

The role of the female is to provide personality stabilisation, emotional support and child rearing.

Females are in a submissive role, based on the 1950s view of married women, who are supposed to listen to and support their husbands. She is the home-maker

Question 5

The domestic division of labour:

What are instrumental and expressive roles (use sociologist)

Answer 5

In the traditional nuclear family, the roles of husbands and wives are segregated (separate and different from one another).

Parsons’ (1955) - there is a clear division of labour between spouses and that this division of labour is beneficial to both men and women, to their children and to wider society.

e.g. the husband has an instrumental role and the wife has an expressive role.

Parsons argues that this division of labour is based on biological differences, with women ‘naturally’ suited to the nurturing role and men to that of provider.

Question 6

The domestic division of labour:

Criticisms of Parson’s view of expressive and instrumental roles (use sociologist)

Answer 6

Young and Willmott (1962) argue that men are now taking a greater share of domestic tasks and more wives are becoming wage earners.

Feminist sociologist reject Parsons’ view that the division
of labour is natural. Gender roles are a social construct that has been put there to oppress women and keep men in power. The division of labour also only benefits men.

Question 7

The domestic division of labour:

What are separate conjugal roles? (use sociologist)

Answer 7

Bott (1957) distinguishes between two types of conjugal roles (roles within marriage).

Segregated conjugal roles - where the couple have separate roles e.g. a male breadwinner and a female homemaker/carer or the instrumental and expressive role. Their leisure activities also tend to be separate.

Question 8

The domestic division of labour:

What are joint conjugal roles? (use sociologist)

Answer 8

Bott (1957) distinguishes between two types of conjugal roles (roles within marriage).

Joint conjugal roles - where the couple share tasks such as housework and childcare and spend their leisure time together.

Question 9

The domestic division of labour:

What are joint and segregated conjugal roles (use sociologist)

Answer 9

Bott (1957) distinguishes between two types of conjugal roles (roles within marriage).

Segregated conjugal roles - where the couple have separate roles and joint conjugal roles - where the couple share tasks such as housework together.

Young and Willmott found a pattern of segregated conjugal roles in w/c extended families in the 1950s.
Men were the breadwinners. They played little part in home life and spent their leisure time with workmates in pubs and working men’s clubs.

Women were full-time housewives with sole responsibility for housework and childcare, helped by their female relatives. Their leisure was also spent with female family.

Question 10

The domestic division of labour:

What is the definition of the symmetrical family? (use sociologist)

Answer 10

The symmetrical family is a family where the roles of husbands and wives are more similar to how they were in the past

e.g. men doing housework and looking after the kids.

Question 11

The domestic division of labour:

What is the symmetrical family? (use sociologist)

Answer 11

Young and Willmott (1973) - see family life as improving and becoming more equal and democratic (the march of progress view).

They argue that there has been a trend towards joint conjugal roles and the ‘symmetrical family’.

Women now go out to work, although this may be part-time rather than full-time - Equal Pay Act 1970 has helped this.

Couples now spend their leisure time together instead of separately with workmates or female relatives e.g. Young and Willmott found that the symmetrical family was more common among younger couples.

Question 12

The domestic division of labour:

How has the rise of the symmetrical nuclear family been the result of major social changes (use sociologist)

Answer 12

Young and Wilmott - the rise of the symmetrical nuclear family as the result of major social changes.

e.g. Changes in women’s position, including married women going out to work e.g. Equal Pay Act 1970 and Sex Discrimination Act 1975

e.g. Geographical mobility - more couples living away from the communities in which they grew up. Couples learn that they cant rely on parents have to learn how to do housework.

e.g. New technology and labour saving devices - by having these labour saving devices it means that men are more likely to do housework.

Question 13

The domestic division of labour:

What is the feminist view on housework? (use sociologist)

Answer 13

Feminist sociologists reject this ‘march of progress’ view that family life is improving and becoming more equal and democratic.

Men and women remain unequal within the family and women still do most of the housework. This is because the family and society are male-dominated or patriarchal.

Oakley (1974) criticises Young and Willmott’s view that the family is now symmetrical. She argues that their claims are exaggerated as although they found that most of the husbands ‘helped’ their wives at least once a week this could mean taking the children for a walk or making breakfast on one occasion. For Oakley this is hardly evidence of symmetry within the family. Oakley found that husbands were more likely to share in childcare than in housework, but only its more pleasurable aspects ‘cherry picking’.

Warde and Hetherington (1993) found that sex-typing of domestic tasks remained strong e.g. wives were 30 times more likely to be the last person to have done the washing while husbands were four times more likely to be the last person to wash the car. They found that men would only carry out routine ‘female’ tasks when their partners were not around to do them.

However, Warde and Hetherington found that there was change of attitude among younger men. They didn’t assume that women should do the housework, and were more likely to think they were doing less than they should have.

Question 14

Are couples becoming more equal?

What is the march of progress view of couples becoming more equal? (use sociologist)

Answer 14

March of progress sociologists argue
that women going out to work is leading to a more equal division of labour at home.

In this view, men are becoming more involved in housework and childcare and women are becoming more involved in paid work.

Sullivan’s (2000) found a trend towards women doing a smaller share of the domestic work and men doing more. Her analysis also showed an increase in the number of couples with an equal division of labour and that men were participating more in traditional ‘women’s’ tasks e.g. cleaning

The British Social Attitudes survey (2013) - found that in 1984, 45% of men and 41% of women agreed that it is the man’s job to earn money and the woman’s job to look after home and family but by 2012 only 13% of men and 12% of women agreed.

Question 15

Are couples becoming more equal?

What is the feminist view that couples are becoming more equal? (use sociologist)

Answer 15

Feminist sociologists believe that women going into paid work has not led to greater equality in the division of domestic labour. There is little evidence of men who do an equal share of housework and childcare while women carry a dual burden of work and childcare and housework (triple shift)

British Social Attitudes survey shows that in 2012 men on average did eight hours of housework a week, whereas women did 13 hours and men spent 10 hours on care for family members, whereas women spent 23 hours.

British Social attitudes also found that couples continue to divide household tasks along traditional gender lines e.g. , women were more likely to do the care for sick family members, do the cleaning and prepare the meals, while men were more likely to do repairs around the house.

Question 16

Are couples becoming more equal?

How does who takes responsibility of the children show equality/inequality in the family (use sociologist)

Answer 16

Dex and Ward (2007) found that, although fathers were involved with caring for their children especially when they are e.g. 78% of fathers played with their 3 year olds children only 1% of fathers took the main responsibility when the child became ill.

Braun, Vincent and Ball (2011) found that in only 3/70 families studied was the father the main carer. Most were ‘background fathers’. Most fathers held a provider ideology’ that their role was as breadwinners, while the mothers saw themselves as the primary carers. This was enforced by ideas in the media telling women how to be good mothers.

Question 17

What is the definition of emotion work (use sociologist)

Answer 17

Russell Hochschild (2013)- Emotion work is where someone is responsible for managing the emotions and feelings of family members e.g. , ensuring everyone is kept happy and and at the same time exercising control over their own emotions.

Feminists say that women are required to perform this role.

Question 18

Are couples becoming more equal?

What is the definition of the triple shift (use sociologist)

Answer 18

Duncombe and Marsden
(1995) argue that women have to perform a ‘triple shift’ of housework, paid work and emotion work

The triple shift refers to the situation where women are responsible for three roles: paid work, domestic chores, and emotional support to family members.

Question 19

Are couples becoming more equal?

What is emotion work and the triple shift (use sociologist)

Answer 19

Russell Hochschild (2013) - Emotion work is where someone is responsible for managing the emotions and feelings of family members e.g. , ensuring everyone is kept happy and and at the same time exercising control over their own emotions.

Duncombe and Marsden
(1995) argue that women have to perform a ‘triple shift’ of housework, paid work and emotion work

Question 20

Taking responsibility for quality time:

Whose responsibility is it for taking quality time (use sociologist)

Answer 20

Southerton (2011) Another responsibility that falls to mothers is scheduling and managing the family’s ‘quality time’ together. This has become more difficult in modern society with the emergence of the 24/7 society and flexible working patterns.

These changes have led to people’s time being more fragmented and de-routinised.

Southerton - although some studies show that men and women equal amounts of leisure they have different experiences of it. e.g. men are more likely to experience ‘blocks’ of uninterrupted leisure time, whereas women’s leisure time is often determined by childcare. This shows that women are carrying a dual burden of looking after the children but also themselves.

Question 21

Explaining gender division of labour

Why is there an unequal division of labour - the cultural/ideological explanation of inequality (use sociologist)

Answer 21

Crompton and Lyonette (2008) - the reason that there is an unequal division of labour is because of culture and ideology

The division of labour is determined by patriarchal norms and values that shape the gender roles in our culture.

Women perform more domestic labour simply because that is what society expects them to do and has socialised them to do.

Equality will be achieved only when norms about gender roles change.

Gershuny (1994) found that couples whose parents had a more equal relationship are more likely to share housework equally themselves. This suggests parental role models are important and how social values can adapt.

Dunne (1999) found that lesbian couples had more symmetrical relationships as there is the absence of traditional heterosexual norms that set out the different gender roles men and women.

Question 22

Explaining gender division of labour

Why is there an unequal division of labour - the material/economic explanation of inequality (use sociologist)

Answer 22

Crompton and Lyonette (2008) - the reason that there is an unequal division of labour is materialism and the economy

As women often earn less than men its means that it is economically rational for women to do more of the housework and childcare while men spend more of their time earning money.

If women join the labour force and earn as much as their partners it will be more likely that men and women doing more equal amounts of domestic work.

Kan found that for every £10,000 a year more a woman earns, she does two hours less housework per week.

Arber and Ginn (1995) - found that better paid M/C women were able to buy labour saving devices rather than having to spend time doing domestic work e.g. childcare, ready meals

Xavier Ramos (2003) found that where the woman is the full-time breadwinner and the man is unemployed, he does as much domestic labour as she does.

Question 23

Conclusion on explaining the gender division in labour

Is there a gender division in labour?

Answer 23

Though there is some evidence that a woman being in paid work leads to more equality in the division of labour, especially if she is in full-time work.

Feminists argue that women still continue to carry a dual burden or triple burden and even if men are doing more in the home, domestic tasks themselves remain gendered. Furthermore, it is women who are expected to take responsibility for housework and childcare.

Feminists argue that the root of the problem is patriarchy. Patriarchal norms and values shape society’s expectations about the domestic roles that men and women ought to perform. Patriarchy also ensures that women earn less at work so have less power at home.

Until patriarchy is successfully challenged in the home and in the workplace, the domestic division of labour will never be equal.

Question 24

Resources and decision making in households

How does resources and decision making in families show inequality between men and women (use sociologist)

Answer 24

There is also inequality in how family resources are shared out between men and women. This is linked to who controls the family’s income and who has the power to make decisions about how it is spent.

Barrett and Mcintosh (1991) - The financial support that husbands give to their wives is often unpredictable and comes with ‘strings’ attached.

Men usually make the decisions about spending on important items e.g. Kempson (1994) found that among w/c families, women denied their own needs and eating smaller portions of food or skipping meals in order to make ends meet.

In many households, a woman has no entitlement to a share of household resources in her own right.

Question 25

Money management

How does money management in families show inequality between men and women (use sociologist)

Answer 25

Pahl and Vogler (1993) shows two main types of control over family income:

The allowance system - where men give their wives an allowance out to meet the family’s needs, with the man retaining any excess income for himself.

Pooling - where both partners have access to income art joint responsibility for spending , a join bank account. Pooling is on the increase and is now the most common money management system.

Question 26

Decision making:

How can decision making show inequality between men and women (use sociologist)

Answer 26

Many people assume that pooling leads to more equality in decision-making and control over resources.
However, when the pooled income is controlled by the husband, this tends to give men more power in major finance decisions Pahl and Vogler (2007) found that even where there was pooling, the men usually made the major financial decision making.

Finch’s (1983) found that that women’s lives tend to be structured around their husbands’ careers.

Geshuny (2000) found that by 1995, 70% of couples said they had an equal say in decisions however women who were high earning, well qualified professionals were more likely to have an equal say.

Question 27

Decision making:

How do cultural/material explanations of decision making show inequality between men and women (use sociologist).

Answer 27

Feminists argue that inequalities in decision-making aren’t always the result of inequalities in earnings.

They argue that in patriarchal society, the cultural definition of men as decision-makers is deeply ingrained in both men and women and instilled through gender role socialisation.

Until this definition is challenged, decision-making is likely to
remain unequal.

Question 28

Decision making:

How does the meaning of money show inequality between men and women (use sociologist)

Answer 28

Pooling money doesn’t always mean there is equality. We also need to know who controls the pooled money and whether each partner contributes equally e.g. if a man earns twice as much as his wife, but both put the same amount into the joint account does this show equality?

Vogler et al found that cohabiting couples were less likely to pool their money yet cohabiting couples are more likely than married couples to share domestic tasks equally.

Question 29

The personal life perspective on money

What is the personal life perspective on money (use sociologist)

Answer 29

The personal life perspective focuses on the meanings couples give to who controls the money.

From this perspective, the meanings that money may have in relationships cannot be taken for granted e.g. some may assume that one partner controlling the money is a sign of inequality whereas some couples it might not have that meaning.

Smart (2007) found that some gay men and lesbians attached no importance to who controlled the money and were perfectly happy to leave this to their partners. They did not see the control of money as meaning either equality or inequality in the relationship. There are no gender norms

Weeks et al (2001) found that the typical pattern was pooling some money for household spending, together with separate accounts for personal spending. This money management system shows a value of
‘co-independence’ - where there is sharing, but where each partner retains control over some money and maintains a sense of independence.

Question 30

Domestic violence:

What is the definition of domestic violence?

Answer 30

Home Office 2013 - Domestic violence/ abuse is
Any incident or pattern of incidents of controlling, coercive or threatening behaviour, violence or abuse between those aged 16 or over who are or have been intimate partners or family members regardless of gender or sexuality.’

This can include psychological, physical, sexual, financial and emotional violence or abuse.

Question 31

Domestic violence

How have sociologists challenged the view that domestic violence is rare and the cause of it is psychological issues (use sociologist)

Answer 31

A common view of domestic violence is that it is the behaviour of a few people and that its causes are psychological rather than social.

Domestic violence is too widespread.
e.g. The Crime Survey for England and Wales (2013) found that two million people reported having been victims of domestic abuse during the previous year.

Domestic violence does not occur randomly but follows particular social patterns such violence by men against women e.g. Coleman et al (2007) found that women were more likely to experience ‘intimate violence’ partner abuse and sexual assault and stalking.

While most victims are women the Crime Survey for England and Wales (2013) found that 7.3% of women compared with 5% of men reported having experienced

Question 32

Domestic violence:

How do official statistics not show the true extent of domestic violence (use sociologist)

Answer 32

Victims may be unwilling to report it to the police e.g. Yearnshire (1997) found that on average a woman suffers 35 assaults before making a report. Shows how women fear of reprisals

Police and prosecutors may be investigate or prosecute those cases that are reported to them e.g. Cheal (1991), this reluctance is due to the fact that police and other state agencies are not prepared to become involved in the family that individuals are free free people so it is assumed that if a woman is experiencing abuse she is free to leave.

However, male violence is often couple with male economic power e.g. abused women are often financially dependent on their husbands and unable to leave

Question 33

Domestic violence

What are explanations for domestic violence

Answer 33

The radical feminist explanation - this emphasises the role of patriarchal ideas cultural values and institutions.

The materialist explanation - this emphasises economic statistics
factors such as lack of resources.

Question 34

Domestic violence:

What is the radical feminist explanation for domestic violence (use sociologist)

Answer 34

Milet (1970) and Firestone (1970) argue that all societies have been founded on patriarchy. They see the key division in society between men and women. Men are the enemy, they are the oppressors and exploiters of women.

Radical feminists see the family and marriage as the key institutions in patriarchal society and the main source of women’s oppression. Within the family, men dominate women through domestic violence or the threat of it.

For radical feminists, widespread domestic violence is an inevitable feature of patriarchal society and serves to preserve the power that all men have over all women. This helps to explain why most domestic violence is committed by men as it is a way to control women. Radical feminists give a sociological, rather than a psychological, explanation by inking patterns of domestic violence to dominant social norms about marriage.

Question 35

Domestic violence:

Evaluation of the radical feminist explanation of domestic violence

Answer 35

Elliot (1996) rejects the radical feminist claim that all men benefit from violence against women. Not all men are aggressive and most are opposed to domestic violence. Radical feminists ignore this. Radical feminists also fail to explain female violence e.g. child abuse by women and violence against male e.g. the Crime Survey for England and Wales (2013) found that 18% of men (2.9 million) have experienced domestic violence since the age of 16.

Radical feminists use patriarchy to explain why most victims of domestic violence are women, but assume that all women are equally at risk of patriarchal violence. They fail to explain which women are most likely to be victims.

e.g. Office for National Statistics
(2014) suggests that women from some social groups face a greater risk of domestic violence e.g. young women
w/c women, poor women, long term illness or disability.

Men who suffer domestic violence are also likely to belong to these groups.

Question 36

Domestic violence:

What is the materialist explanation of domestic violence (use sociologist)

Answer 36

Wilkinson and Pickett (2010) see domestic violence as the result of stress on family members caused by social inequality.

Inequality means that some families have fewer resources than others. Poorer families are more likely to experience higher levels of stress. This reduces their chances of maintaining stable, caring relationships and increases the risk of conflict and violence e.g. worries about money, jobs and housing may spill over into domestic conflict as tempers grow

Question 37

Domestic violence:

Evaluation of the materialist explanation of domestic violence

Answer 37

Wilkinson and Pickett do not explain why women rather than men are the main victims.

Ansley (1972) describes wives
She argues that domestic violence is the product of capitalism, male workers are exploited at work and they take out their frustration on their wives.

This helps to explain why domestic violence is male violence against females. However it fails to explain why not all male workers commit acts of violence against women and doesn’t account for cases of female domestic violence.