Topic 4: Demography Flashcards
What is demography?
The study of populations and their characteristics is called demography. These characteristics include:
Factors that affect demography:
What are factors affect demography? e.g. size
Is the population large or small, growing or declining?
Factors that affect demography:
What are factors affect demography? e.g. age
Is the average age of the population rising or falling?
Factors that affect demography:
What are factors affect demography? e.g. births
How many babies are born.
Factors that affect demography:
What are factors affect demography? e.g. death
How many people die.
Factors that affect demography:
What are factors affect demography? e.g. immigration
How many people enter the country from elsewhere.
Factors that affect demography:
What are factors affect demography? e.g. emigration
How many people leave the country to live elsewhere.
Key word?
What does the birth rate mean?
The number of live births per thousand of the population per year.
Birth rate:
What has the overall birth rate been like in the UK?
The number of births affects population size e.g. the more babies that are being more, the bigger the population size
Sociologists use the birth rate to measure births. Overall there has been a long-term decline in the number of births since 1900. In that year, England and Wales had a birth rate of 28.7, but by 2014 it had fallen to an estimated 12.2.
Birth rate:
What fluctuations have their been in the birth rate in the UK?
There were three baby booms in the 20th century: after World War I, World War II, and in the 1960s.
The birth rate then dropped in the 1970s, rose in the 1980s, and fell again after the early 1990s, with some increase since 2001.
Key word:
What does the total fertility rate mean?
The average number of children women will have during their fertile years (late teens to early 30s)
The total fertility rate:
What has the total fertility rate been like in the UK?
The UK’s fertility rate has risen from 1.63 in 2001 to 1.83 in 2014, but is still much lower than in 1964.
This is due to more women remaining childless and delaying childbirth, with the average age for having children now 30.
Fertility rates for women in their 30s and 40s have increased, but older women tend to have fewer children.
Reasons for the decline in the birth rate:
What are the reasons for the decline in birth rate?
Change in the position of women
Decline in infant mortality
Children being an economic liability (expensive too look after)
Child-centeredness
Reasons for the decline in the birth rate:
How has the change in the position of women in society led to the decline in the birth rate? (use sociologist) Change in the position of women
Equal Pay Act 1970 - meant that women had to be payed the same amount as men for doing the same job
Sex Discrimination Act 1975 - Discriminating based on the sex was made illegal
BOTH OF THE LAWS ALLOW WOMEN TO BE EQUAL TO MEN. FEEL EMPOWERED TO WORK. DON’T ONLY HAVE TO THE ROLE OF THE HOMEMAKER
Harper (2012) argues that women’s education is a key reason for the decline in birth rates. Educated women are more likely to delay or forgo having children to focus on careers, leading to an increase in childless women. By 2012, one in five women aged 45 was childless, double the number from 25 years earlier.
Harper also explains that when low fertility persists for more than one generation, cultural norms shift, making smaller families the norm. As a result, larger families begin to be viewed as unusual or less socially acceptable.
Key word:
What is the infant mortality rate?
The infant mortality rate (IMR) measures the number of infants who die before their first birthday, expressed per thousand live births each year.
Reasons for the decline in death rate:
How has the decline in infant mortality lead to the decline of the birth rate? (use sociologist)
Harper argues that a decline in the infant mortality rate (IMR) leads to a lower birth rate. When infant deaths were high, parents had more children to replace those lost, increasing the birth rate. However, as infant survival rates improved, parents had fewer children.
Factors like better housing, sanitation, and medical advancements, such as immunisation, antibiotics, and improved maternity care, contributed to the reduction in the IMR from the 1950s onward.
Reasons for the decline in the birth rate
How did children becoming an economic liability lead to the decline in the birth rate? (use sociologist)
Until the late 19th century, children were seen as economic assets, often working from a young age to contribute financially.
Restricting when children can work, such as through the Education Act 1996, which prevents children from working during school hours, and the Raising of the School Leaving Age (ROSLA) in 2016, which extended the age at which young people can leave school, has resulted in children being economically dependent on their parents for a longer period.
Changing expectations of what children should receive materially has also increased the cost of raising them. As a result, parents are now less likely or willing to have large families due to these financial pressures leading to a decline in the birth rate.
Reasons for the decline in the birth rate:
How does the world becoming more child centred lead to the decline in the birth rate?
The growing focus on children in both families and society has made childhood seen as a highly important stage in life.
This shift has led to a change in family size, with parents having fewer children but investing more time, attention, and resources in each child.
Due to increased investments in children’s education, health, and well-being, families are having fewer children.
Parents now focus on providing quality care and resources for a smaller number of children. This is reflected in the growing trend of purchasing high-quality goods and services tailored to children’s needs, such as toys, clothing, and technology, emphasizing the value of quality over quantity.
Effects of changes in fertility:
What factors does changes in fertility impact?
The family, the dependency ratio, and public services and policies.
Effects in the change of fertility
How does changes in the fertility impact the family?
Smaller families make it easier for women to work, contributing to the rise of dual-earner couples (both partners work) in professional families.
However, family size isn’t the only factor, as wealthier couples can afford larger families and still manage full-time work by paying for childcare therefore showing how wealth is also a contributing factor to the family size as wealthier couples can afford to have children.
Key word :
What is the dependency ratio?
The relationship between the size of the working or productive part of the population and the size of the non-working or dependent part of the population.
Effects on the change in fertility:
How does changes in fertility affect the dependency ratio?
Falling birth rates reduce the “burden of dependency” on the working population, as fewer children mean fewer dependents.
However, in the long run, fewer babies will lead to a smaller working population, potentially increasing the dependency burden.
Fewer children may lead to lonelier childhoods with fewer siblings and less advocacy for children’s needs, but it could also result in children being more valued.
Effects of the change in fertility:
How does the changes in fertility affect public services and policies?
A lower birth rate can reduce the demand for public services like schools and child health services, and affect costs related to maternity and paternity leave and housing.
However, political decisions can influence these outcomes, such as choosing to reduce class sizes instead of cutting schools.
Additionally, fewer births contribute to an ageing population, with more older people relative to younger people.
Key word:
What is the death rate?
The death rate is the number of deaths per thousand of the population per year.
The death rate:
What has the death rate been like in the UK?
The UK’s death rate dropped from 19 in 1900 to 8.9 in 2012.
With a steady decline from 1870, a slight increase during the 1930s-40s due to economic and wartime factors, and a continued decrease since the 1950s.
Reasons for the decline in the death rate:
What are the reasons for the decline in the death rate in the 20th century?
Tranter (1996) - From 1850 to 1970, over three-quarters of the decline in the death rate in the UK was due to a decrease in deaths from infectious diseases e.g. measles specially in infants, children, and young adults.
By the 1950s, diseases linked to wealth (people have money to buy fatty food), such as heart disease and cancer, became more common, affecting older adults.
The decline in infectious diseases was because of improved social factors e.g. healthcare (NHS 1948) and living conditions (The Rent Act (1965) aimed to protect tenants from exploitation by making housing more affordable and better regulated.
Reasons for the decline in the death rate:
How did economic growth lead to the decline in the death rate (use sociologist)
Rowntree - there was a rapid decline in absolute poverty (in the first half of the 20th century).
The increase in living standards led to people improving their diet and this lead to increased resistance to infectious diseases.
Better food and nutrition has meant for children are better at resisting infectious which lead to the decline in infant mortality
Criticism:
How did economic growth not lead to the decline in the death rate?
Not all people equally benefitted from these thing. The wealthy today have a longer life expectancy than the poor, who will suffer problems related to poverty.
Reasons for the decline in the death rate:
How did improved nutrition lead to the decline in the death rate? (use sociologist)
McKeown (1972) argues that improved nutrition accounted for up to half the reduction in death rates, and was particularly important in reducing the number of deaths.
Better nutrition increased resistance to infection and increased the survival chances of those who did become infected.
Criticism:
How did improved nutrition not lead to the decline of the death rate?
McKeown does not explain why females, who receive a smaller share of the family food supply, lived longer than males.
He also doesn’t explain why deaths from some infectious diseases, such as measles rose at a time of improving nutrition.
Reasons for the decline in the death rate:
How does medical improvements lead to a decline in the death rate?
Before the 1950s, medical advances had little effect on reducing deaths from infectious diseases.
After the 1950s, improvements like antibiotics, immunisation and better maternity care helped lower death rates.
The creation of the NHS in 1948 further supported these reductions. More recent medical progress has also cut deaths from heart disease.
Criticisms:
How is modern medicine not a reason for the decline in the death rate?
Modern medicine is not the most important factor in improving life expectancy, it is economic growth, rising living standards and improvements in public health.
If people weren’t better off, they couldn’t afford medicine
Reasons for the decline in the death rate
How does the less smoking and changes in diet lead in the decline of the death rate? (use sociologist)
Harper suggests that the decline in death rates in recent decades is mainly due to reduced smoking, while obesity has become a new health issue.
Although obesity rates have risen, deaths from it are low, thanks to drug treatments.
Harper warns that the UK may be adopting an “American” health model, where unhealthy lifestyles are managed by expensive medications, leading to longer life expectancy.
Reasons for the decline in the death rate
How have public health measures lead to the decline in the death rate?
In the 20th century, more effective government action improved public health and the environment.
The Rent Act 1965 – Protected tenants from exploitation, making housing more affordable and secure.
The Water Industry Act 1991 – Introduced modern regulations for water and sewage, setting standards for sewage treatment to protect public health and the environment.
BOTH OF THESE MEAN THAT PEOPLE CAN HAVE A BETTER QUALITY OF LIFE WHICH LEADS TO DECLINE IN DEATH RATES!!!
Key word:
Wha does life expectancy mean?
How long on average a person born in a given year can expect to live.
Reasons for the decline in the death rate
How has the increase of life expectancy lead to the decease in the death rate?
As death rates have decreased, life expectancy has increased significantly:
Males born in England in 1900 had an average life expectancy of 50 years (57 for females).
Males born in England in 2013 can expect to live to 90.7 years (94 for females).
Reasons for the decline in the death rate
How does the decline in death rate affect class and regional differences? (use sociologist)
People in the North of England and Scotland have lower life expectancy compared to those in the South. BASED ON WEALTH. THE SOUTH IS RICHER
W/C men in unskilled or routine jobs are nearly three times more likely to die before 65 compared to men in managerial or professional roles.
Walker (2011) - those living in the poorest areas of England die on average seven years earlier than those in the richest areas, while the average difference in disability-free life expectancy is 17 years.
An ageing population:
What has an ageing population been like in the UK
The UK’s population is aging, with the average age rising from 34.1 years in 1971 to 40.3 years in 2013, and projected to reach 42.8 years by 2037.
The number of older people is increasing, while the number of younger people is shrinking.
By 2041, there will be as many 78-year-olds as five-year-olds, reflecting a shift from a traditional age pyramid to more balanced age groups.
An ageing population:
What factors causes an ageing population?
Increasing life expectancy - people are living longer into old age
Declining infant mortality, so that nowadays hardly anyone dies early in life
Declining fertility - fewer young people are being tom in relation to the number of older people in the population
The effects of an ageing population:
What are the effects of an ageing population? e.g. public services
Older people, especially those aged 75 and over, use a larger share of services like health and social care compared to younger age groups.
An aging population may also lead to changes in policies and services related to housing, transport, and other areas.
The effects of an ageing population:
What are the effects of an ageing population? e.g. one person pensioner households
The number of single-person pensioner households has increased, with women making up the majority due to their longer life expectancy and being younger than their husbands.
Among those aged 75 and over, there are twice as many women as men, a trend referred to as the “feminisation of later life.”
The effects of an ageing population:
What are the effects of an ageing population? e.g. The dependency population
Elderly people who don’t work are economically dependent group who need to be provided for by those of working age, for example through taxation to pay for pensions and health care.
As the number of pensioners increases, the dependency ratio rises, placing a greater financial burden on the working population.
In 2015, there were 3.2 working-age people for each pensioner, but this is projected to drop to 2.8 by 2033.
However, not all older people are economically dependent, as the pension age is rising, and the decrease in dependent children helps this.
Key word:
What does ageism mean?
Ageism is prejudice or discrimination based on a person’s age. It can affect both younger and older people,
The effects of an ageing population:
How has an ageing population lead to ageism?
The ageing population has led to the growth of ageism. Ageism towards older people is evident in various forms, such as discrimination in employment and unequal treatment in healthcare.
Additionally, old age is often portrayed as a societal “problem,” focusing on the costs of pensions and healthcare for the elderly
Modern society and old age:
How did ageism come about in modern society? (use sociologist)
Ageism comes from where older people are excluded from paid work and become economically reliant on families or the state.
In modern society, identity and status links to how useful a person is to capitalism and those who don’t work are seen as dependent and marginalised
Phillipson (1982) - the elderly are no longer productive and therefore not valuable to capitalism. As a result, the state provides minimal support, and families, especially women, are left to care for them.
Post modern society and old age:
How is post-modern society not ageist? (use sociologist)
Postmodernist sociologists argue that in society, the traditional stages of life have become blurred and shift gives individuals more freedom to choose their lifestyle regardless of age.
In a postmodern world, identity is defined by consumption rather than production. Hunt (2005), age no longer determines who we are (people are allowed to shape their own identities meaning that there is less ageism as there are less restrictions. PEOPLE CAN BE WHO THEY WANT TOO BE!!!
Post modern society and old age:
What two features of post-modern society undermine old age as a marginalised life stage? e.g. media
The centrality of the media - Media images now portray positive aspects of the lifestyles of the elderly e.g. looking after children. Being able to go on holiday (adverts)
Post modern society and old age:
What two features of post-modern society undermine old age as a marginalised life stage? e.g. surface features
The body becomes a surface on which we can write identities. Anti-ageing products enable the old to write different identities for themselves. They don’t have to be the stereotypical old person.
Inequality among the old:
How does an ageing population cause inequality among the old?
Pilcher (1995) - inequalities such as class and gender remain important.
e.g. the M/C have better pensions and greater savings from higher salaries. However poorer elderly people have a shorter life expectancy.
e.g. Women’s lower earnings and career breaks as carers mean lower pensions. They are also subject to sexist and ageist remarks e.g. ‘hags’
How an elderly population effects policies:
How does having an ageing population effect policies that are written? (use sociologist)
Hirsch (2005) argues that to address the challenges of an ageing population, policies must adapt, focusing on financing longer retirements through increased savings, taxes, or longer working years.
Housing policies may also need to encourage older people to downsize, freeing up homes for younger people.
These changes require a shift in societal attitudes, recognizing that old age is a social construct, not just a biological fact.
Evaluation of the views of an ageing population:
How is old is a social construction? (use sociologist)
Hockey and James - old age is a social construction - the west often has negative views of the elderly but many people above the retirement age are able to do a wide range of beneficial social roles e.g. volunteering
This should be encouraged. In 2023, the government has launched campaigns to encourage those over 50 who stopped working in the pandemic to return to work - helps to show that they believe that old is not a problem
Evaluation of the views of an ageing population:
What are the criticisms of the functionalists view of an ageing population? (use sociologist)
C. Wright Mills: Mills critiqued functionalism for its overly simplistic view of society. He argued that it fails to account for the power structures that influence how aging individuals are treated. According to Mills, aging should be seen within the context of social inequality and the conflict between generations rather than a harmonious adaptation to societal changes.
Goffman: Goffman criticized the functionalist view for not addressing the stigmatization of the elderly. He emphasized how the elderly can be treated as “outsiders” or “unproductive” members of society, which leads to marginalization, a view largely ignored by functionalists like Parsons.
Evaluation of the views of an ageing population:
Criticisms of the Feminist view of an ageing population? (use sociologist)
Butler: Butler critiqued essentialist assumptions about gender and aging. She argued that de Beauvoir’s work fails to address the intersectionality of gender, age, and other identity factors such as race, class, and sexuality. Butler suggested that aging cannot be understood solely through the lens of gender but needs to take into account these additional intersecting identities.
Glenn: Glenn critiqued feminist views on aging by pointing out that race and class also play a significant role in shaping the experiences of aging women. She argued that white, middle-class perspectives on aging often fail to account for the unique experiences of older women of color, who may experience different forms of discrimination and marginalization.
Evaluation of the views of an ageing population:
Criticisms of the post-modern view of an ageing population? (use sociologist)
Laslett criticized this view for oversimplifying aging by focusing too much on individualism. He argued that societal factors like economic inequalities still play a crucial role in shaping the experience of aging, especially for people from different socioeconomic backgrounds.
Bauman criticized the post-modern perspective for emphasizing individual autonomy, which overlooks the social exclusion and marginalization of the elderly, particularly those with limited resources. Bauman argued that in a consumer-driven society, older people are often devalued and excluded.
Key word:
What is migration?
The movement of people from place to pace. It can be internal, within a society, or international.
Key word:
What is emigration?
The movement out of a country.
Key word:
What is immigration?
The movement into a country.
Key word:
What is net migration?
The difference between the numbers of migrants and the numbers of emigrants.
Immigration:
What has immigration been like in the UK?
From the 1900s until WW2 the largest immigrant group were the Irish (for economic reasons, then by Eastern and then Central European Jews who were fleeing persecution.
During the 1950s, black immigrants from the Caribbean began to arrive in the UK, followed during the 1960s and 1970s by South Asian immigrants.
This has led to a more ethnically diverse society. By 2011, ethnic minority groups accounted for 14% of the population. One result has been a greater diversity of family patterns.
Emigration:
What has emigration been like in the UK?
From the mid-16th century until the 1980s, the UK was typically a net exporter of people, with more individuals leaving to settle abroad than coming to live in the UK.
Since 1900, British emigrants have mainly moved to countries such as the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
Emigration:
What are push and pull factors?
‘Push’ factors such as economic recession and unemployment at home
‘Pull’ factors such as higher wages or better opportunities abroad.
These economic reasons for migration contrast with those of some other groups, who have been driven to migrate by religious, political or racial persecution.
The impact of migration on UK population structure:
What impact has immigration had on population size?
Net migration is high - there is more immigrants then emigrants.
Births to the UK born mothers remain low but births to non UK born mothers are higher and account for about 25% of all births, but even with these, births remain below the replacement level of 2.1 children per woman (the number needed to keep the population size stable.
If not for net migration, the UK’s population would be shrinking. This would be bad as there would be enough people to work and support services especially with our ageing population
The impact of migration on UK population structure:
What impact has immigration had on age structure?
Immigration lowers the average age of the population directly and indirectly.
Directly - immigrants are generally younger - means that they are more able to work.
Indirectly - being younger immigrants are more fertile and therefore produce more babies which helps to keep the population size more stable.
The impact of migration on UK population structure:
What impact has immigration had on dependency ratio?
Immigrants are more likely to be of working age and this helps to lower the dependency ratio. Also many older immigrants return to their country of origin to retire. This is good as it stops the population from being too much.
However because the immigrants are young, it means that they are more likely to have children so therefore increasing the ratio. Over time these children will join the labour force and help to lower the ratio again
The longer a group is settled in the country, the closer their fertility comes to the national average (they adopt the norms and values of society) reducing their overall impact on the dependency ratio
Key word:
What is globalisation?
The idea that barriers between societies are disappearing and people are becoming increasingly interconnected across national boundaries.
Key word:
What does acceleration mean in terms of migration?
That there is more migration
Globalisation and migration:
How has globalisation cause migration to accelerate?
There has been a speeding up of the rate of migration.
e.g. United Nations between 2000 and 2013 international migration increase by 33%, to reach 232 million, or 3.2% of the world’s population. In the same year, almost a million people either entered or left the UK.
Globalisation and migration:
What does differentiation mean in terms of migration?
Differentiation in migration refers to the diversity among migrants, with varying backgrounds, reasons for moving, and experiences, leading to unequal treatment and outcomes.
Globalisation:
How does differentiation cause migration (use sociologist)
Since the 1990s, globalization has brought greater diversity to UK migration, with migrants now having varied legal statuses, cultures, and backgrounds.
Vertovec calls this leading to super-diversity as migrants come from a variety of backgrounds and have variable status
Key word:
What is a citizen?
A person who legally belongs to a country and has rights and duties under its laws.
Globalisation and migration:
What is a citizens? (use sociologist)
Cohen (2006) - citizens are people with full citizenship rights such as voting rights (typically people who are born in the country)
THERE ARE CLASS DIFFERENCES BETWEN THE MIGRANTS. CITIZENS HAVE THE BEST STATUS
Key word:
What is a denizen migrant?
Privileged migrants that come from wealth and status e.g. billionaires
Globalisation and migration:
How are there class differences between migrants? e.g. denizen (use sociologist)
Cohen (2006) Denizens are people who are privileged people welcomed by the state – such as billionaire ‘oligarchs’ or highly paid employees of Transnational companies
THERE ARE CLASS DIFFERENCES BETWEN THE MIGRANTS. DENIZEN HAVE MIDDLE STATUS
Key word:
What is a helot migrant?
Low status migrant who is paid lowly and is often exploited for their labour by others in society.
Globalisation and migration:
How are there class differences between migrants? e.g. helot (use sociologist)
Cohen (2006) - The most exploited group – states and employers regard them as disposable units of labour power, a reserve army of labour.
They are found in unskilled, poorly paid work and include illegally trafficked workers and legal workers such as domestic servants.
THERE ARE CLASS DIFFERENCES BETWEN THE MIGRANTS - HELOTS HAVE THE WORST STATUS
Globalisation and migration:
What is the feminisation of migration? (use sociologist)
The feminisation of migration refers to the increasing number of women migrating for work, particularly in low-paid care and domestic roles, often facing exploitation and vulnerability.
Globalisation and migration:
How does migration cause the feminisation of migration (use sociologist)
Ehrenreich and Hochschild (2003) highlight that migrant women increasingly fill jobs in care, domestic work, and sex work in the West, often due to the absence of state-provided childcare and the growing participation of Western women in the workforce.
In the UK, many care jobs are held by migrant women, who also perform emotional labour, such as nannies caring for others’ children while sacrificing time with their own e.g. Shutes (2011) - 40% of adult care nurses are migrants
Some migrant women also become mail-order brides or victims of sex trafficking, reflecting the vulnerabilities they face in the global labour market.
Key word:
What does transnational identity mean?
The sense of belonging or connection that migrants feel to more than one country or culture.
Globalisation and migration:
How does migration affect identities e.g. transnational identities (use sociologists)
Everyone has multiple sources of identity e.g. family, religion and this can give people a sense of belonging. For migrants their country of origin can provide an additional/alternative source of identity.
e.g. Eade (1994) - found that second generation Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain created hierarchal identities - they saw themselves as Muslim first and British last.
Those with hybrid identities may find others challenge this and be accused of ‘not fitting in’
e.g. Eriksen found that Chinese migrants in Rome found Mandarin more useful for everyday life than Italian because it was more important for their global connections . Globalisation can cause migrants to be less likely to assimilate into the host’s culture.
Key word:
What does assimilation mean?
Policy that aimed to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, values and customs of the hosts culture to make them ‘like us’
Key word:
What does multiculturalism mean?
Accepts that migrants may wish to retain may wish to retain a separate cultural diversity.
However, in practice this acceptance may be limited to more superficial aspects of cultural diversity.
Key word:
What does shallow diversity mean?
Refers to visible, surface-level differences in culture, like appearance or food, without deeper understanding of the underlying cultural complexities.
Regarding chicken tikka masala as British national dish is acceptable to the state
Key word:
What deep diversity mean?
Refers to understanding and appreciating the complex cultural differences, including values, beliefs, and social norms, beyond just surface-level traits.
Arranged marriages or the veiling of women is not acceptable to the state e.g. Boris Johnson said that burka’s look like ‘letter boxes’
Key word:
What does a divided working class?
A divided working class in immigration refers to the division between local workers in secure jobs and migrant workers in low-paid, unstable roles, creating tension and reducing unity.
Globalisation and migration:
How has migration become politicised? (use sociologist)
As migration has increased it has become an important political issue. States now have policies that seek to control migrants, absorb migrants into society and deal with increased ethnic and cultural diversity.
Most recently immigration policies have also become linked to national security and anti-terrorism policies
- USA - The Trump travel ban restricted U.S. entry from several predominantly Muslim countries for national security reasons
UK - The Rwanda Bill is a UK plan to send asylum seekers arriving illegally to Rwanda for processing, aiming to deter illegal migration.
Globalisation and migration:
What are the issues with assimilation policies? (use sociologist)
Assimilation policies face the problem that transnational migrants with hybrid identities may not be willing to abandon their culture or to see themselves as just belonging to one nation.
e.g. Eade (1994) - found that second generation Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain created hierarchal identities - they saw themselves as Muslim first and British last.
It may also encourage workers to blame migrants for social problems such as unemployment e.g. In the summer riots in 2024 (UK) - people were saying that immigrants were taking people’s jobs.
Globalisation and migration:
What are the issues with multi-culturalism policies?
Multi-cultural policies celebrate shallow diversity e.g. samosa and saris while failing to address deeper problems facing children from migrant backgrounds e.g. racism
e.g. Boris Johnson said that burka’s look like ‘letter boxes’
