Topic 5: Reactions to Behaviorism (Gestalt and Humanistic Psychologies) Flashcards
Elementism
the belief that complex mental or behavioral processes are composed of or derived from simple elements and that the best way to understand these processes is first to find the elements of which they are composed
Gestalt
the German word meaning “configuration”, “pattern”, or “whole”
Gestalt Psychology
the type of psychology that studies whole, intact segments of behavior and cognitive experience
Molar Approach
the attempt to focus on intact and mental and behavioral phenomena without dividing those phenomena in any way
Molecular Approach
the attempt to reduce complex phenomena into small units for detailed study
such an approach is elementistic
Phenomenology
the study of intact, meaningful, mental phenomena
Christian von Ehrenfels (1859-1932)
said that mental forms emerge from various sensory experiences and that these forms are different from the sensory elements they comprise
Field Theory
the branch of physics that studies how energy distributes itself within physical systems
in some systems (such as solar system), energy can distribute itself freely
in other systems (such as an electrical circuit), energy must pass through wires, condensers, resisters and so forth
in either type of system, however, energy will always distribute itself in the simplest, most symmetrical way possible under the circumstances
according to the Gestaltists, the brain is a physical system whose activity could be understood in terms of field theory
Phi Phenomenon
the illusion that a light is moving from one location to another
the phi phenomenon is caused by flashing two lights on and off at a certain rate
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
founded the school of Gestalt psychology with his 1912 paper on the phi phenomenon
Karl Koffka (1886-1941)
worked with Wertheimer on his early perception experiments
Koffka is considered a cofounder of the school of Gestalt psychology
Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967)
worked with Wertheimer on his early perception experiments
Kohler is considered a cofounder of Gestalt psychology
Psychophysical Isomorphism
the Gestaltists’ contention that the patterns of activity produced by the brain - rather than sensory experience as such - causes mental experience
Constancy Hypothesis
the contention that there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between physical stimuli and sensations, in the sense that the same stimulation will always result in the same sensation regardless of the circumstances
the Gestaltists argued against this contention, saying instead that what sensation a stimulus elicits is relative to existing patterns of activity in the brain and to the totality of stimulating conditions
Law of Pragnaz
because of the tendencies of the force fields that occur in the brain, mental events will always tend to be organized, simple, and regular
according to the law of Pragnaz, cognitive experience will always reflect the essence of one’s experience instead of its disorganized, fragmented aspects
Perceptual Constancy
the tendency to respond to objects as being the same, even when we experience those objects under a wide variety of circumstances
Figure-Ground Relationship
the most basic type of perception, consisting of the division of the perceptual field into a figure (that which is attended to) and a ground, which provides the background for the figure
Principle of Continuity
the tendency to experience stimuli that follow some predictable patterns as a perceptual unit
Principle of Proximity
the tendency to perceptually group together stimuli that are physically close
Principle of Similarity
the tendency to perceive as units stimuli that are physically similar to one another
Principle of Closure
the tendency to perceive incomplete objects as complete
Geographical Environment
according to Koffka, physical reality
Behavioral Environment
according to Koffka, subjective reality
Insightful Learning
learning that involves perceiving the solution to a problem after a period of cognitive trial and error
Transposition
the application of a principle learned in one learning or problem-solving situation to another simple situation
Productive Thinking
according to Wertheimer, the type of thinking that ponders principles rather than isolated facts and that aims at understanding the solutions to problems rather than memorizing a certain problem-solving strategy or logical rules
Intrinsic (Internal) Reinforcement
the self-satisfaction that comes from problem solving or learning something
according to the Gestaltists, this feeling of satisfaction occurs because solving a problem or learning something restores one’s cognitive equilibrium
Extrinsic (External) Reinforcement
reinforcement that comes from a source other than one’s self
Memory Process
the brain activity caused by the experiencing of an experimental event
Memory Trace
the remnant of an experience that remains in the brain after an experience has ended
Trace System
the consolidation of the enduring or essential features of memories of individual objects or classes of objects
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
an early Gestaltist who sought to explain human behavior in terms of the totality of influences acting on people rather than in terms of the manifestation of inner essences
Lewin was mainly responsible for applying Gestaltist principles to the topics of motivation and group dynamics
Life Space
according to Lewin, the totality of the psychological facts that exist in one’s awareness at any given moment
Psychological Facts
according to Lewin, those things of which a person is aware at any given moment
Principle of Contemporaneity
Lewin’s contention that only present facts can influence present thinking and behavior
past experiences can be influential only if a person is presently aware of them
Quasi Needs
according to Lewin, psychological rather than biological needs
Zeigarnik Effect
the tendency to remember uncompleted tasks longer than completed ones
Approach-Approach Conflict
according to Lewin, the type of conflict that occurs when a person is attracted to two goals at the same time
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
according to Lewin, the type of conflict that occurs when a person is repelled by two goals at the same time
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
according to Lewin, the type of conflict that occurs when a person is attracted to and repelled by the same goal at the same time
Group Dynamics
Lewin’s extension of Gestalt principles to the study of group behavior
Subjective Reality
a person’s consciousness
Phenomenology
the introspective study of intact, mental experiences
Intentionality
Brentano’s contention that every mental act refers to something to external to the act
Pure Phenomenology
the methodology proposed by Husserl to discover the essence of those mental acts and processes by which we gain all knowledge
Ontology
the study of the nature of existence
Maurice Merlaeu-Ponty (1908-1961)
a French academic psychologist known for his existential phenomenology
modern phenomenological psychology is often derived from his methods
Jean-Paul Sarte (1905-1980)
a French philosopher with interests in psychology
his existential writing earned him a Nobel prize
Albert Camus (1913-1960)
a French writer who won the Nobel Prize for his works in existential psychology and political science
Absurd
the existential idea that the search for an inherent meaning in life is futile
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)
expanded Husserl’s phenomenology to include an examination of the totality of human existence
Existential Psychology
the brand of contemporary psychology that was influenced by existential philosophy
the key concepts in existential psychology include freedom, individuality, responsibility, anxiety, guilt, thrownness, and authenticity
Dasein
Heidegger’s term for “being-in-the-world”
the world does not exist without humans, and humans do not exist without the world
because humans exist in the world, it is there that they must exercise their free will
being-in-the-world means existing in the world, and existing means interpreting and valuing one’s experiences and making choices regarding those experiences
Authentic Life
according to existentialists, the type of life that is freely chosen and not dictated by the values of others
in such a life, one’s own feelings, values, and interpretations act as a guide for conduct
Becoming
a characteristic of the authentic life because the authentic person is always becoming something other than what they were
becoming is the normal, healthy psychological growth of a human being
Inauthentic Life
a life lived in accordance with values other than those freely and personally chosen
such a life is characterized by guilt
Guilt
the feeling that results most intensely from living an inauthentic life
Anxiety
the feeling that results when one confronts the unknown, as when one contemplates death or when one’s choices carry one into new life circumstances
according to existentialists, one cannot live without experiencing anxiety
Responsibility
a necessary by-product of freedom
if we are free to choose our own existence, then we are completely responsible for that existence
Thrownness
according to Heidegger and Binswanger, the circumstances that characterize a person’s existence that are beyond the person’s control
Ludwig Binswanger (1881-1966)
applied Heidegger’s existential philosophy to psychiatry and psychology
for Binswanger, a prerequisite for helping an emotionally disturbed person is to determine how that person views themselves and the world
Daseinanalysis
Binswanger’s method of psychotherapy that requires that the therapist understand the client’s worldview
it examines a person’s mode of being-in-the-world
Umwelt
Binswanger’s term for the physical world
Mitwelt
Binswanger’s term for the realm of social interactions
Eigenwelt
Binswanger’s term for a person’s private, inner experiences
World-Design
Binswanger’s term for a person’s basic orientation toward the world and life
Ground of Existence
Binswanger’s term for the circumstances into which a person is thrown and according to which they must make choices
Being-Beyond-the-World
Binswanger’s term for becoming
healthy individuals always attempt to transcend what they are
Rollo May (1909-1994)
psychologist who was instrumental in bringing European existential philosophy and psychology to the United States
Human Dilemma
according to May, the paradox that results from the dual nature of humans and objects to which things happen and as subjects who assign meaning to their experiences
Neurotic Anxiety
the abnormal fear of freedom that results in a person living a life that minimizes personal choice
Shut-Upness
Kierkegaard’s term for the type of life lived by a defensive, inauthentic person
Self-Alienation
according to existentialists, the condition that results when people accept values other than those that they attained freely and personally as guides for living
Normal Anxiety
results from living an authentic life
Daimonic
according to May, any human attribute or function that in moderation is positive but in excess is negative
Narrative Therapy
examines the stories by which people live and understood their lives and, where necessary, encourages the replacement of ineffective stories with effective ones
George Kelly (1905-1967)
emphasized that it is always possible to construe one’s self and the world in a variety of ways
for Kelly, psychological problems are essentially perceptual problems
Construct Systems
according to Kelly, the collection of personal constructs with which people make predictions about future events
Constructive Alternativism
Kelly’s notion that it is always possible to view ourselves and the world in a variety of ways
Propositional Thinking
according to Kelly, the experimentation with ideas to see where they lead
Self-Characterization
the self-description that Kelly required of many of his clients before beginning their therapeutic program
Fixed-Role Therapy
Kelly’s brand of therapy whereby he would assign a role for his clients to play that was distinctly different from the client’s self-characterization
with this type of therapy, the therapist acts much like a supporting actor
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
a humanistic psychologist who emphasized the innate human tendency toward self-actualization
Maslow contended that behaviorism and psychoanalysis provided only a partial understanding of human existence and that humanistic, or third-force, psychology needed to be added to complete our understanding
Humanistic Psychology
the branch of psychology that is closely aligned with existential psychology
unlike existential psychology, however, humanistic psychology assumes that humans are basically good
that is, if negative environmental factors do not stifle human development, humans will live humane lives
humanistic psychology is concerned with examining the more positive aspects of human nature that behaviorism and psychoanalysis had neglected
Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s contention that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy and that lower needs in the hierarchy must be adequately satisfied before attention can be focused on higher needs
the most basic and powerful needs in the hierarchy are physiological needs, and then come safety needs, needs for belonging and love, and the need for self-esteem
when all lower needs in the hierarchy are adequately satisfied, a person becomes self-actualized
Self Actualization
according to Rogers and Maslow, the innate human tendency toward wholeness
the self-actualizing person is open to experience and embraces the higher values of human existence
Transpersonal Psychology
Maslow’s proposed fourth force in psychology that stresses the relationship between the individual and the cosmos (universe) and in so doing focuses on the mystical and spiritual aspects of human nature
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
a humanist psychologist whose nondirective and the client-centered psychotherapy was seen by many as the first viable alternative to psychoanalysis as a method for treating troubled individuals
like Maslow’s, Roger’s theory of personality emphasized the innate tendency toward self-actualization
to Rogers, a person continues toward self-actualization unless their organismic valuing process is displaced by conditions of worth as a guide for living
the only way to avoid creating conditions of worth is to give a person unconditional positive regard
Organismic Valuing Process
according to Rogers, the innate, internal guidance system that a person can use to “stay on the track” toward self-actualization
Need for Positive Regard
according to Rogers, the need for positive responses from the relevant people in one’s life
Conditions of Worth
according to Rogers, the conditions that the relevant people in our lives place on us and that we must meet before these people will give us positive regard
Unconditional Positive Regard
according to Rogers, the giving of positive regard without any preconditions
Incongruent Person
Rogers’ term for the person whose organismic valuing process is replaced by conditions of worth as a guide for living
Positive Psychology
field in contemporary psychology that explores the positive attributes of humans but does so in a more scientifically rigorous and less self-centered way than was often the case with traditional humanistic psycjology
Flourishing
according to positive psychologists, the state of being free from mental illness
living an enthusiastic, meaning, and effective life
What were the Gestaltists opposed to?
the Gestaltists were opposed to any type of elementism in psychology, whether it be the type Wundt and the structuralists practiced or the type the behaviorists practiced in their search for S-R associations
Who were the antecedents of Gestalt psychology?
Kant
Mach: belief that the perceptions of things we have are independent of the object time form, you know the melody no matter the tempo or instrument
Ehrenfels: our perceptions contain form qualities, melody is not reducible to the notes
Brentano
The Wurzburg School
What was the founding of Gestalt psychology?
Wertheimer’s 1912 article “Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement” describing the phi phenomenon is usually taken as the formal beginning of the school of Gestalt psychology
Who was Kurt Koffka?
wrote several books and articles regarding Gestalt psychology
his article entitled, “Perception: An introduction to Gestalt-theorie,” was believed to provide a misrepresentation that Gestaltists were only interested in perception
but his book proposes a paradigm towards all types of psych issues not just perception
Who was Wolfgang Kohler?
he did research regarding aspects of learning which greatly influenced Gestalt ideas, including the nature of learning in chimpanzees
when we measure things, we preclude ourselves from what we’re measuring actually
if you’re only focused on the parts and don’t understand the whole, you’ll never get the whole picture
What is isomorphism and the law of Pragnanz?
Gestaltlists propose that the brain contains structural fields of electrochemical forces
upon entering a field, sensory data both modify the structure of the field and are modified by the field; our experience results from the interaction of the sensory data and the force fields in the brain
cognitive experience results from the fields of brain activity transforming sensory data and giving that data characteristics it otherwise would not possess
according to the analysis, the whole (electrochemical force fields in the brain) exists prior to the parts (individual sensations) and it is the whole that gives the parts their identity and meaning
What is psychophysical isomorphism?
the force fields in the brain transform incoming sensory data and that is the transformed data that we experience consciously
isomorphism comes from the Greek meaning “similar shape”
the patterns of brain activity and the patterns of conscious experience are structurally equivalent
What is the constancy hypothesis?
brain is a dynamic configuration of forces that transforms sensory information
instead of viewing the brain as a passive receiver and reorder of sensory information
the notion of isomorphism necessitated an opposition to the constancy hypothesis, which states there is a one-to-one correspondence between environmental stimuli and sensations
What is top-down analysis?
for Gestalt psychology, organized brain activity dominates our perception, not the stimuli that enter into that activity
therefore, the whole is more important than the parts, thus reversing one of psychology’s oldest traditions
analysis proceeded from the top to the bottom instead of from the bottom to the top, in other words analysis proceeded from the whole to the parts
What is the law of Pragnanz?
the psychological organization will always be as good as conditions allow because fields of brain activity will always distribute themselves in the simplest way possible under the prevailing conditions
the law asserts that all cognitive experiences will tend to be as organized, symmetrical, simple, and regular as they can be, given the pattern of brain activity at any given moment
that is what “as good as conditions allow” means
What is perception according to Gestalt psychology?
the way we respond to objects as if they are the same, even though the actual stimulation our senses receive may vary greatly
this phenomenon is not a function of sensation plus learning but is a function of the ongoing brain activity and the field’s activity
What is perceptual Gestalten?
through the years, the Gestaltists isolated over 100 configurations (Gestalten) by which visual information is arranged
What is the figure-ground relationship?
the perceptual field can be divided into two parts, the figure and the ground
the figure is clear and unified and is the object of attention, and the ground is diffuse and consists of everything that is not being attended to
the division creates a figure-ground relationship and what is the figure and what is the ground can be changed by shifting one’s attention
What is the Gestalt principle of continuity?
stimuli that have continuity with one another (intrinsic togetherness, seem to go together) will be experienced as a perceptual unit to make a whole
What is the Gestalt principle of proximity?
stimuli, which are close together, tend to be grouped together as a perceptual unit
What is the Gestalt principle of inclusiveness?
when there is more than one figure, we are most likely yo see the figure that contains the greatest number of stimuli
What is the Gestalt principle of similarity?
objects that are similar in some way tend to form perceptual units
What is the Gestalt principle of closure?
incomplete figures in the physical world are perceived as complete ones
for example, if we have figures with gaps in them we fill in the gaps to make a whole
What is subjective and objective reality?
Koffka distinguished between the geographical environment (physical environment) and the behavioral environment (our subjective interpretation of the geographical environment)
our own subjective reality governs our actions more than the physical environment
What is the Gestalt explanation of learning?
cognitive trial and error
instead of behavioral trial and error, the Gestaltists believed that cognitive trial and error occurs
organisms come to see solutions to problems
What is insight learning?
if a problem is presented to an organisms along with whatever is necessary to solve the problem, insight learning will typically occur
What are the four characteristics of insight learning?
- the transition from no solution to solution is sudden and complete
- performance based on the insightful solution is usually smooth and free of errors
- a solution gained by insight is retained for a considerable length of time
- a principle gained by insight is easily applied to other problems
What is transposition?
an organism learns principle or relationships, not specific responses to specific situations
once it learns a principle, the organism applies it to similar situations
similar to transfer of training
What is the behaviorists’ explanation of transposition?
the Gestaltist explanation of transposition did not go unchallenged
in 1937, Kenneth Spence, the major spokesman for Hullian psychology, came up with an ingenious alternative explanation
What is productive thinking?
the ideas presented in the book Productive Thinking by Wertheimer were based on personal experience, experimentation, and interviews with people considered excellent problem solvers, such as Einstein
learning based on Gestalt principles would be based on understanding the structure of the problem, followed by the solution and the solution is reinforcing
learning and problem solving are intrinsically reinforcing
this is top-down learning in contrast to rote memorization or learning based on logic and typical of most education systems
learning and problem solving governed by intrinsic motivation rather than extrinsic motivation
What is memory in Gestalt psychology?
a memory process is the brain activity caused by a specific environmental event
when the event ends, so does the brain activity it caused: however, a remnant, a memory trace, remains in the brain
we also remember things in general terms rather than by specific characteristics
individual traces fives way to a trace system, which is the consolidation of a number of interrelated experiences
the interaction of traces and trace systems with memory processes results in our perceptions and memories being smoother and better organized than they otherwise would be
What was Lewin’s perspective on Aristotle vs. Galileo?
Aristotle emphasized inner essences and categories
Galileo emphasized outer causation and the dynamics of forces
Lewin saw Galileo as revolutionizing science when he changed its focus from inner causation to a more comprehensive notion of causation, in which the behavior of an object or organism is determined by the total forces acting on the object or organism at the moment
for Lewin, complex dynamic forces acting on an individual at a given moment explains human behavior
What is the life space?
consists of all influences acting on him or her at a given time
these influences, called psychological facts, consist of an awareness of internal events, external events, and recollections of prior experiences
to be a psychological fact, it must exist in a person’s awareness at the moment
only those facts are currently present in the life space can influence a person’s thinking and behavior
this is called the principle of contemporaneity
the life space also contains imagined events
What was Lewin’s idea of motivation?
biological and psychological needs cause tension in the life space, and the satisfaction of the need reduces the tension
psychological needs are called quasi needs
What is the Zeigarnik effect?
the tendency to remember uncompleted tasks better than completed tasks
the explanation was that for an uncompleted task for the associated tension is never reduced therefore, the task remains as an intention, and as such remains as part of the person’s life space
thus, we remember the uncompleted task better than the completed task
What are group dynamics according to Lewin?
for Lewin, a group can be viewed as a physical system and the behavior of the individual elements is determined by the configuration of the existing field of energy
the nature of configuration of a group will strongly influence the behavior of its members
members of each group has what Lewin called a dynamic interdependence
studies of group dynamics led to encounter groups, sensitivity training, and leadership institutes
Who was Fritz Perls?
founder of Gestalt therapy
influenced by Reich
the “empty chair” technique: sits in front of empty chair, imagine someone in chair they need to confront and talk to them, then witch chairs and respond as that person
setting aside assumptions and things that are clogging up life space
obtaining experimental freedom
Who was J. J. Gibson?
was an American psychologists
his 1950 book “The Perception of the Visual World” broke ranks with the dominant, simplistic behaviorist way of thinking about perception
it is considered a founding document of ecological psychology
What is Gibsonian perception?
Gibson argued that the study of optics as a purely physical (as opposed to psychological) science is a poor basis for understanding visual experience
Gibson maintains that the eye has specifically evolved to sense ambient light, which is the light that surrounds a living organism
What is the optic array?
Gibson calls the ambient light sensed by an embodied creature the optic array
What are affordances?
are possibilities for behavioral interaction inherent in the environment
that is, aspects of the environment that make certain actions possible
What is the legacy of Gestalt psychology?
Gestalt psychology has been assimilated into modern psychology, and therefore Gestalt psychology has lost its distinctiveness as a school
Gestalt psychology influenced: cognitive and social psychology
What is the mind, body, and spirit?
we can divide human nature into three major components:
the mind (our intellect)
the body (our biological makeup)
the spirit (our emotional makeup)
third-force psychology: subjective reality
What are the antecedents of third-force psychology?
by the mid-20th century, structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt psychology had lost their distinctiveness as schools of thought
only behaviorism and psychoanalysis remained influential
in the troubled times of the 1960s, the views of humans provided by behaviorism and psychoanalysis were viewed by many as incomplete, distorted, or both
many were looking for a new view, one that emphasized the human spirit rather than strictly the mind or body
What is third-force psychology?
in the early 1960s, a group of psychologists led by Abraham Maslow started a movement referred to as third-force psychology
this was a reaction to the shortcoming (as they saw them) of behaviorism and psychoanalysis to deal fully with the human condition
according to these psychologists, what was needed was a model of humans that emphasized their uniqueness and their positive aspects
according to these psychologists, what was needed was a model of humans that emphasized their uniqueness and their positive aspects
this third force combines the philosophies of romanticism and existentialism and is called humanistic psychology
What are the two ontological questions existentialism is concerned with?
what is the nature of human nature?
what does it mean to be a particular individual?
Who was Jean-Paul Sartre?
one of the best known early existentialist philosophers
existence precedes essence: our existence defines us rather than any essential qualities, great responsibility with choice because choices constitute what we are, we take responsibility for our choices
Who was Simone de Beauvoir?
best known for her feminist treatise “The Second Sex” (1949)
all intellectual forces have been shaped in a way to put down women
gender is an inescapable aspect of life
Who was Albert Camus?
best known as an existential novelist
The Absurd: trying to search for life’s purpose in other things is futile
Who was Karl Jaspers?
a German philosopher and psychiatrist
What were Jaspers’ three stages of being?
in reference to things in the environment
being oneself: define in terms of choices and decisions
being in itself: being happy with where one is
Who was Martin Buber?
was an Austrian philosopher and was heavily involved in the Zionist movement
we don’t have consciousness have a self dialogue between persons or God
individuals will define themselves in terms of relationships
What is phenomenology?
focuses on cognitive experiences as it occurs; in intact form not reduced to component parts
this pure phenomenology soon expanded into modern existentialism
however, existentialists were interested in the nature of human existence
in philosophy, the study of existence or what it means to be is called ontology
What was Brentano’s idea of phenomenology?
focused on psychological acts such as judging, recollecting, expecting, doubting, fearing, hoping, or loving, and including the concept of intentionality within the acts
What was Husserl’s idea of phenomenology?
believed that phenomenology could create an objective bridge between the outer, physical world and the inner, subjective world
he developed what he called pure phenomenology with the purpose of discovering the essence of conscious experience - the person inward
Who was Martin Heidegger?
postulated that humans are always becoming something other than what they were; to exist is to change
What is Heidegger’s idea of Dasein?
refers to human existence as a temporal and spatial phenomenon
existence is a complex, dynamic, and uniquely human phenomenon
the authentic life
What is Heidegger’s idea of guilt?
with the realization that we must someday die, the person gets busy and exercises his or her freedom to create a meaningful existence, an existence that allows for almost constant personal growth, or becoming
if we do not exercise our personal freedom, we experience guilt
What is Heidegger’s concept of thrownness?
acceptance of the fact that at some time in the future we will be nothing causes anxiety; thus such acceptance takes courage
we are thrown into our own personal circumstances and this is beyond our control
for example, whether we are male or female, short or tall, rich or poor, and so on
this determines the conditions under which we exercise our freedom
What is personalism?
reflected a resurgence of interest in the nature of human personhood in response to impersonal philosophies of the Enlightenment
this devaluing of the integrity of the individual was exacerbated through mechanization in industry, depersonalization in urbanization, anonymity in mass entertainment, and displacement in widespread warfare
Who was Emmanuel Mounier?
a French philosopher and personalist
focus on embodied existence
fight against depersonalizing forces and try to personalize
persons are defined by their relationship to other people
existence of free and creative persons
Who was Karol Wojtyla?
the founder of Polish personalism
we cannot relate ourselves to people as if they are tools
the person is free
we live our lives in search of truth and through some avenue of freedom
need to treat people as totalities
Who was Maurice-Merleau Ponty?
bridges psychological and philosophical approaches
individual intentionality
Who was Adrian van Kaam?
a founder of Duquesne University in Pittsburgh
call for a more phenomenological existential approach
Who is Amedeo Giorgi?
a major figure in phenomenological-existential psychology
promoted a human science model for psychology
Who was R.D. Laing?
drew on existential theory to propose a novel model for treating mental illness
believed that approaches to treating mental illness were inhumane
questioned how we understand normality
conflicting communication patterns
What are the three modes of existence proposed by Binswanger?
around the world (the Umwelt): the world of things and events
with world (the Mitwelt): interactions with other humans
own world (the Eigenwelt): person’s private, inner, subjective experience
What is Binswanger’s idea of the ground of existence?
the world-design is how an individual views and embraces the world
where we operate from and exert personal freedoms
need to transcend the ground of existence
What is Binswanger’s idea of being-beyond-the-world?
he or she always tries to transcend one’s personal circumstances
everyone seeks being-beyond-the-world, which is the way people try to transform their circumstances by exercising free will
one must always find his/her own meaning of life no matter what the personal circumstances
Who was Viktor Frankl?
prior to the Holocaust, Frankl had been a psychoanalyst associated with Freud and Adler
after his experience in the war he would reinvent his clinical approach, calling it logotherapy, which he described as a phenomenological analysis of how people come to find meaning
What are the three domains of meaning proposed by Frankl?
meaningful work: vocational expression that is meaningful
meaningful relationships: other people, world, culture, nature
meaning in suffering: find meaning in things we cannot avoid, places of growth
Who was Gordon Allport?
proposed a unique trait theory that drew heavily from the existential-phenomenological tradition
ideographic: emphasizes uniqueness of individuals
personality psychology
Who was Charlotte Buhler?
proposed a view of psychological development that anticipated aspects of Maslow’s humanistic psychology
anticipated Maslow’s approach
growing means developing aspects of self as we mature
Who was Abraham Maslow?
usually recognized as the most responsible for making humanistic psychology a formal branch of psychology
What are the basic tenets of humanistic psychology?
little of value can be learned about humans by studying nonhuman animals
subjective reality is the primary guide for human behavior
studying individuals is more informative than studying what groups of individuals have in common
a major effort should be made to discover those things that expand and enrich human experience
research should seek information that will help solve human problems
the goal of psychology should be to formulate a complete description of what it means to be a human being
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
human needs are arranged in a hierarchy
the lower the needs are in the hierarchy, the more basic and similar to animals’ needs they are
the higher needs in the hierarchy, the more distinctly human the are
What is the order of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
physiological needs –> safety needs –> belonging and love needs –> esteem needs –> self-actualization
What does self-actualization mean?
self-actualization meant to reach one’s full, human potential
What are the characteristics of the self-actualized?
they perceive reality accurately and fully
they demonstrate a great acceptance of themselves and others
they have a need for privacy
they tend to have only a few friends
they are creative, etc.
What is transpersonal psychology?
focused on the mystical, ecstatic, or spiritual aspects of human nature
to be a fourth-force to go beyond person with how they’re tuned into the world
not really scientific and meta-physical so not popular in modern psychology
Who was Rollo May?
the human dilemma
humans are both objects and subjects of experience: objects in the sense that we exist physically, therefore things happen to us
subjects in the sense that we do not simply have experiences, we interpret, value, and make choices regarding our experience
we give experience meaning
May was not opposed to studying humans scientifically, but he was opposed to using physical science methods to do it
the merging field of positive psychology is moving toward the direction May suggested
What is May’s idea of the human dilemma?
for May and other existentialists, the most important fact about humans is that they are free
freedom brings with it responsibility and, therefore, anxiety
the healthy person exercises freedom to approach his or her full potential, to go beyond what one previously was
all this causes anxiety, but it is normal, healthy anxiety because it is conducive to personal growth
neurotic anxiety is not conducive to personal growth because it results from fear of freedom
What is May’s idea of neurotic anxiety?
the person living with neurotic anxiety lives his or her life in such a way that reduces or eliminates personal freedom
self-alienation occurs whenever people accept values dictated by society rather than those personally attained
exercising free will may lead to normal anxiety; otherwise we feel guilty
What is May’s idea about myths?
myths provide the major vehicle for giving meaning in life, saying, “Myths are narrative patterns that give significance to our existence”
most important function is the providing a sense of community
What are the four functions that myths serve according to May?
provide a sense of identity
provide a sense of community
provide our moral values
provide a means of dealing with the mysteries of creation
What was Rogers theory of personality?
Rogers postulated an innate human drive toward self-actualization
if people use this actualizing tendency as a frame of reference in living their lives, they are said to be living according to the organismic valuing process
a problem usually arises because in childhood we have a need for positive regard, but we receive this only if we act or think in certain ways
What was Rogers’ idea of conditions of worth?
they stunt the organismic valuing process
the only way to avoid imposing conditions of worth on people is to give them unconditional positive regard
only people who receive unconditional positive regard can become a fully functioning person
an incongruent person is someone who is no longer true of his/her own feelings
Roger’s person-centered psychology has been applied to such diverse areas as religion, medicine, law enforcement, ethnic and cultural relations, politics, and organizational development
Who was George Kelly?
the cornerstone of Kelly’s position is whether or not a person has a psychological problem is mainly a matter of how that person views things
the goal of all humans is like the major goal of scientists, which is to reduce uncertainty
scientists create theories to attempt to predict future events: nonscientists create construct system to predict future events
What was Kelly’s concept of constructive alternativism?
this aligned him with the existentialists
people are free to choose the constructs they use in interacting with the world
they can view and interpret events in an almost infinite number of ways because construing them is an individual matter
What was Kelly’s idea of therapy?
Kelly often began therapy by having clients write a self-characterization, which gave information about how he/she viewed him/herself, the world, and others
Kelly also had clients engage in fixed-role therapy
What are the similarities between existential and humanistic psychology?
humans have free will and are responsible for their actions
the most appropriate method to study humans is phenomenology
humans must be studied as a whole in order to be understood
living an authentic life is better than living an inauthentic one
What are the differences between existential and humanistic psychology?
humanists assume that humans are basically good, while the existentialists view human nature as essentially neutral
humanists believe the major motivation in life is the actualizing tendency, while existentialists believe that the only motivational force is the “will of meaning”
What are the criticisms of humanistic psychology?
equate behaviorism with Watson and Skinner even though there were other behaviorists that stress purpose in behavior
overlooks the cumulative nature of science by insisting that scientific psychology does not care about the loftier human attributes
the description of humans is like the more favorable ones found in poetry and literature, which represents a type of wishful thinking that is not factually correct
criticizes behaviorism, psychoanalysis, and scientific psychology in general: however, all three have made significant contributions to the betterment of the human condition
rejects traditional scientific methodology
rejects animal research
many terms and concepts that humanistic psychologists use defy clear definitions and verification
What are the contributions of humanistic psychology?
expansion of psychology’s domain
development of positive psychology: explores positive human attributes
positive psychologists and early humanistic psychologists agree that mental health is more than the absence of mental illness
flourishing is used to describe people who are not only free from mental illness, but who are filled vitality and are functioning optimally
