Topic 2: American Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
Jean-Baptise Lamarck (1744-1829)
A
proposed that adaptive characteristics acquired during an organism’s lifetime were inherited by that organism’s offspring
this was the mechanism by which species were transformed
2
Q
Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
A
Lamarck’s contention that adaptive abilities developed during an organism’s lifetime are passed on to the organism’s offspring
3
Q
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
A
first a follower of Lamarck and then of Darwin
Spencer applied Darwinian principles to society by saying that society should maintain a laissez-faire policy so that the ablest individuals could prevail
his position is called Social Darwinism
4
Q
Spencer-Bain Principle
A
the observation first made by Bain and later by Spencer that behavior resulting in pleasurable consequences tends to be repeated and behavior resulting in painful consequences tend not to be
5
Q
Social Darwinism
A
Spencer’s contention that, if given freedom to compete in society, the ablest individuals will succeed and the weaker ones will fail, and this is as it should be
6
Q
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
A
devised a theory of evolution that emphasized a struggle for survival that results in the natural selection of the most fit organisms
by showing the continuity between human and nonhuman animals, the importance of individual differences, and the importance of adaptive behavior, Darwin strongly influenced subsequent psychology
7
Q
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
A
economist who wrote “Essay on the Principle of Population” (1798), which provided Darwin with the principle he needed to explain the observations that he had made while aboard the “Beagle”
the principle stated that because more individuals are born than environmental resources can support, there is a struggle for survival and only the fittest survive
8
Q
Alfred Russell Wallace (1823-1913)
A
developed a theory of evolution almost identical to Darwin’s, at almost the same time that Darwin developed his theory
9
Q
Struggle for Survival
A
the situation that arises when there are more offspring of a species than environmental resources can support
10
Q
Survival of the Fittest
A
the notion that, in a struggle for limited resources, those organisms with traits conducive to survival under the circumstances will live and reproduce
11
Q
Natural Selection
A
a key concept in Darwin’s theory of evolution
because more members of a species are born than environmental resources can support, nature selects those with characteristics most conducive to survival under the circumstances, which allows them to reproduce
12
Q
Fitness
A
according to Darwin, an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce
13
Q
Adaptive Features
A
those features that an organism possesses that allow it to survive and reproduce
14
Q
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)
A
the monk who is credited with discovering genetics based on his work with pea plants
15
Q
Sociobiology
A
a modern extension of Darwin’s theory to the explanation of human and nonhuman social behavior
16
Q
Evolutionary Psychology
A
a modern extension of Darwin’s theory to the explanation of human and nonhuman social behavior
17
Q
Inclusive Fitness
A
the type of fitness that involves the survival and perception of copies of one’s genes into subsequent generations
with this expanded definition of fitness, one can be fit by helping their kin survive and reproduce as well as producing one’s own offspring
18
Q
Francis Galton (1822-1911)
A
influenced by his cousin Charles Darwin, was keenly interested in the measurement of individual differences
Galton was convinced that intellectual ability is inherited and, therefore, recommended eugenics, or the selective breeding of humans
he was the first to attempt to systematically measure intelligence, to use a questionnaire to gather data, to use a word-association test, to study mental imagery, to define and use the concepts of correlation and median, and to systematically study twins
19
Q
Eugenics
A
the use of selective breeding to increase the general intelligence of the population
20
Q
Nature-Nurture Controversy
A
the debate over the extent to which important attributes are inherited or learned
21
Q
Correlation
A
systematic variation between two variables
22
Q
Regression Toward the Mean
A
the tendency for extremes to become less extreme in one’s offspring
for example, the offspring of extremely tall parents tend not be as tall as the parents
23
Q
Karl Pearson (1857-1936)
A
devised the formula for calculating the coefficient of correlation
24
Q
Coefficient of Correlation (r)
A
a mathematical expression indicating the magnitude of correlation between two variables
25
James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)
worked with Galton and developed a strong interest in measuring individual differences
Cattell brought Galton's methods of intelligence testing to the United States
26
Alfred Binet (1857-1911)
found that following Galton's methods of measuring intelligence often resulted in falsely concluding that deaf and blind children and low intelligence
Binet attempted to measure directly the cognitive abilities he though constituted intelligence
27
Theodore Simon (1873-1961)
collaborated with Binet to develop the first test designed to directly measure intelligence
28
Binet-Simon Scale of INtelligence
the scale Binet and Simon devised to directly measure the various cognitive abilities they believed intelligence comprised
the scale first appeared in 1905 and was revised in 1908 and in 1911
29
William Stern (1871-1938)
coined the term mental age and suggested the intelligence quotient as a way of quantifying intelligence
30
Mental Age
according to Stern, a composite score reflecting all the levels of the Binet-Simon test that a child could successfully pass
31
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Stern's suggested procedure for quantifying intelligence
the intelligence quotient is calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age
32
Mental Orthopedics
the exercises that Binet suggested for enhancing determination, attention, and discipline
these procedures would prepare a child for former education
33
Charles Spearman (1863-1945)
using an early form of factor analysis, found that intelligence comprised specific factors (s) and general intelligence (g)
he believed the latter to be largely inherited
34
Factor Analysis
a complex statistical technique that involves analyzing correlations among measurements and attempting to explain the observed correlations by postulating various influences (factors)
35
General Intelligence (g)
the aspect of intelligence that, according to Spearman, is largely inherited and coordinates specific intellectual abilities
36
Cyril Lodowic Burt (1883-1971)
claimed that his studies of identical twins neared together and apart showed intelligence to be largely innate
evidence suggested that Burt invented his data, and a major scandal ensued
37
Henry Herbert Goddard (1866-1957)
translated Binet's intelligence test into English and used it to test and classify students with mental retardation
Goddard was an extreme nativist who recommended that those with mental deficiencies be sterilized or institutionalized
as a result of Goddard's efforts, the number of immigrants allowed into the United States was greatly reduced
38
Lewis Madison Terman (1877-1956)
revised Binet's test of intelligence, making it more compatible with US culture
Terman, along with Godard and Yerkes, was instrumental in creating the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests
he also conducted a longitudinal study of gifted children and found that, contrary to the belief at the time, gifted children tended to become healthy, gifted adults
39
Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939)
rejected the belief, popular at the time, that women achieve less than males do because they are intellectually inferior to males
instead, her explanation emphasized differences in social opportunity
her career focused on improving the education of both subnormal and gifted students
40
Robert Mearns Yerkes (1876-1956)
suggested that psychology could help in the war effort (WWI) by creating tests that could be used to place recruits according to their abilities and to screen the mentally unfit from military service
the testing program was largely ineffective and was discontinued soon after the war
41
David Wechsler (1896-1981)
developed a new way of determining IQ scores, which is featured in his two tests - the WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) and WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)
42
Functionalism
under the influence of Darwin, the school of functionalism stressed the role of consciousness and behavior in adapting to the environment
43
William James (1842-1910)
was instrumental in the founding of functionalistic psychology
James emphasized the function of both consciousness and behavior
for him they only valid criterion for evaluating a theory, though, or act is whether it works
in keeping with his pragmatism, he claimed that psychology needs to employ both scientific and nonscientific procedures
similarly, on the individual level, sometimes one must believe in free will and at other times in determinism
44
Pragmatism
the belief that usefulness is the best criterion for determining the validity of an idea
45
Stream of Consciousness
term for the way James thought the mind worked
James described the mind as consisting of an ever-changing stream of interrelated, purposive thoughts rather than static elements that could be isolated from one another, as the structuralist has suggested
46
Habits
those learned patterns of behavior that James and others believed were vital for the functioning of society
47
Empirical Self
according to James, the self that consists of everything a person can call their own
the empirical self consists of the material self (all of one's material possessions), the social self (one's self as known by others), and the spiritual self (all of which a person is conscious)
48
Self As Knower
according to James, the pure ego that accounts for a person's awareness of their empirical self
49
Self-Esteem
according to James, how a person feels about themselves based on the ratio of successes to attempts
one can increase self-esteem either by accomplishing more or attempting less
50
Carl George Lange (1834-1900)
along with James, proposed the theory that a person's emotional experience follows their behavior
51
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
the theory that people first respond and then have an emotional experience
for example, we run first, and then we are frightened
an implication of the theory is that we should act according to the way we want to feel
52
Ideo-Motor Theory of Behavior
according to James, ideas cause behavior, and thus we can control our behavior by controlling our ideas
53
Hugo Munsterberg (1863-1916)
stressed the application of psychological principles in such areas as clinical, forensic, and industrial psychology
in so doing, Munsterberg created applied psychology
54
Applied Psychology
psychology that is useful in solving practical problems
the structuralists opposed such practicality, but Munsterberg and, later, the functionalists emphasized it
55
Reciprocal Antagonism
Munsterberg's method of treating mentally disturbed individuals, whereby he would strengthen thoughts antagonistic to those causing a problem
56
Forensic Psychology
the application of psychological principles to legal matters
Munsterberg is considered the first forensic psychologist
57
Industrial Psychology
the application of psychological principles to such matters as personnel selection, increasing employee productivity, equipment design, and marketing, advertising, and packaging of products
Munsterberg is usually considered the first industrial psychologist
58
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
although satisfying all the requirements for a PhD at Harvard, she was denied the degree because she was a woman
in spite of such restrictions, Calkins made significant contributions to the study of verbal learning and memory and to self-psychology
her many hours included being elected the first female president of the APA in 1905
59
Paired-Associate Technique
the still widely used method of investigating verbal learning invented by Calkins
pairs of stimulus material are first presented to subjects and the, after several exposures, only one member of the pair is presented and the subject is asked to recall the second
60
Granville Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
created the first US experimental psychology laboratory, founded and became the first president of the APA, and invited Freud to Clark University to give a series of lectures
Hall thus helped psychoanalysis receive international recognition
many of the beliefs contained in his two-volume book on adolescence are now considered incorrect
nonetheless, that work is currently seen as an important pioneering effort in educational, child, and adolescent psychology and in parent education and child welfare programs
61
Recapitulation Theory
Hall's contention that all stages of human evolution are reflected in the life of an individual
62
Francis Cecil Sumner (1895-1954)
in 1920, under the supervision of Hall, became the first African American to obtain a PhD in psychology
later, under Sumner's leadership, Howard University became a highly influential training center for Africa American psychologists
63
Kenneth Bancroft Clark (1914-2005)
along with his colleagues, conducted research that demonstrated the negative effects of segregation of children
a portion of this research was cited in the 1954 Supreme Court decision that ended the legal basis for segregated education in the United States
Clark went on to become the first African American president of the APA in 1970
64
John Dewey (1859-1952)
a key person in the development of functionalism
some mark the formal beginning of the school of functionalism with the 1896 publication of Dewey's article "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology"
65
James Rowland Angell (1869-1949)
as president of the American Psychological Association and as chairman of the psychology department at the University of Chicago for 25 years, did much to promote functionalism
66
Harvey Carr (1873-1954)
an early functionalistic psychologist at the University of Chicago
67
Adaptive Act
Carr's term for a unit of behavior with three characteristics
a need, an environmental setting, and a response that satisfies the need
68
James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)
represented functionalistic psychology at Columbia University
he did much to promote applied psychology
69
Robert Sessions Woodworth (1869-1962)
an influential functionalist at Columbia University who emphasized the role of motivation in behavior
70
Dynamic Psychology
the brand of psychology suggested by Woodworth that stressed the internal variables that motivate organisms to act
71
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)
marks the transition between the school of functionalism and behaviorism
Thorndike concluded from his objective animal research that learning occurs gradually, occurs independent of consciousness, and is the same for all mammals
his final theory of learning was that practice alone has no effect on an association (neural bond) and that positive consequences strengthen an association but negative consequences do not weaken it
72
George John Romanes (1848-1894)
one of the first to follow Darwin's lead and study animal behavior
Romanes' research was very subjective, however, and relied heavily on anecdotal evidence
73
Conwy Lloyd Morgan (1852-1936)
an early comparative psychologist who believed that there is a graduation of consciousness among animal species
to infer the cognitive processes used to various animals, he observed their naturally occurring behavior
74
Morgan's Cannon
the insistence that explanations of animal behavior be kept as simple as possible
one should never attribute higher mental activities to an animal if lower mental activities are adequate to explain its behavior
75
Margaret Floy Washburn
first woman to obtain a doctorate in psychology and second female president of the APA (1921)
she made significant contributions to comparative psychology by studying animal behavior under controlled conditions before inferring the mental attributes necessary to explain the observed behavior
76
Puzzle Box
the experimental chamber Thorndike used for systematically studying animal behavior
77
Connectionism
the term often used to describe Thorndike's theory of learning because of its concern with the neural bonds or connections that associate sense impressions and impulses to action
78
Law of Exercise
Thorndike's contention that the strength of an association varied with the frequency of the association's use
Thorndike discarded this law in 1929
79
Law of Effct
Thorndike's contention that reward strengthens associations, whereas punishment weakens them
later, Thorndike revised the law to state that reward strengthens associations, but punishment has no effect on them
80
Identical Elements Theory of Transfer
Thorndike's contention that the extent to which learning transfers from one situation to another is determined by the similarity between the two situations
81
James mark Baldwin (1861-1934)
founded several psychology programs, including the first in Canada
did important early work in social psychology, cognitive development, and linking psychology with evolution
he served as APA president
82
What was evolutionary theory before Darwin?
the idea that both the earth and living organisms change in some systematic way over time goes back at least as far as the ancient Greeks
83
Who was Jean-Baptiste Lamarck?
the theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics stated that environmental changes during the lifetime of the organism resulted in structural changes in plants and animals
these changes would be passed on to the offspring, which in turn enhanced their chance for survival
84
What was Spencer's view of evolution?
Spencer applied his view of evolution to everything in the universe, including the human mind and societies
through evolution, differentiation occurs and systems become increasingly complex and move toward perfection
applied evolutionary theory to selection of behavior in what was called the Spencer-Bain Principle
proposed that the probability of a behavior occurring in the future is a function of whether it is followed by a pleasurable event or a painful event: this became the cornerstone of Thorndike's connectionism and Skinner's operant behavior
went on to propose that these propensities for various behavioral responses could be passed on to offspring
85
What is social Darwinism?
applied the notion of survival of the fittest to societies and entities within societies; this is the concept of Social Darwinism
societies and entities within societies, for example, businesses and companies, evolve and those which are "more perfected" survive and those which do not survive
this was obviously compatible with the capitalist and individualistic philosophy in the US at this time in history and social Darwinism was accepted wholeheartedly
86
What was the journey of the Beagle?
Darwin was hired as a naturalist/scientist for a five-year expedition to collect scientific facts to support the Biblical account of the creation
during the voyage he collected hundreds of specimens and made hundred of observation
he also read the book Principles of Geology, which made him start doubting the Biblical account
87
Did Thomas Malthus's "Essay on the Principles of Population" impact Darwin?
with all of these observations, his ideas of evolution were in their infancy
reading this essay provided him with the mechanism/principle to complete the formulation of the theory
the essay proposed that food supply and populations size were kept in balance by events such as war, starvation, and disease
in other words, natural events could and do select who will survive and have children and who will not survive
88
What is the natural struggle for survival in Darwin's theory of evolution?
within a species there is variability, which produces vast individual differences in characteristics
some of these characteristics are more conducive to the organism's survival within particular environmental conditions (environmental pressure) than others
89
What is survival of the fittest in Darwin's theory of evolution?
therefore, a natural selection occurs
evolution, in other words, results from the natural selection (selection by environmental pressures) of those accidental variations among members of a species that prove to have survival value
90
What is fitness in Darwin's theory of evolution?
defined solely in terms of ability to survive and reproduce
Darwin said nothing about progression toward a goal or perfection; evolution just happens due to natural environmental pressures
91
What was Darwin's theory about Earth's age?
conflict with the Church
mainly due to Darwin's estimates of earth's age
92
What is evolution's role in psychology?
Darwin's book, The Expressions of Emotions in Man and Animals is most directly related to psychology
in the book, he argues that human emotions are remnants of animal emotions that had once been necessary for survival
these comparisons launched modern comparative psychology
93
What is Darwin's lasting influence?
the theory was revolutionary
still affects the behavior of scientists and philosophers
changed the traditional view of human nature and the view of our place in the universe
the theory has influenced all areas of psychology
it also played a significant role in the development of functionalism and subsequently behaviorism
evolutionary psychology has also used Darwin's definitions to account for human social behaviors
94
Who was Sir Francis Galton?
Darwin's cousin: became interested in studying the inheritance of human abilities and individual differences
invented the weather map
was the first to suggest using fingerprints for identification
95
What was Galton's measurement of intelligence?
believed that intelligence was inherited
led to the formation of the eugenic movements
96
What is eugenics?
Galton's conclusion raised a fascinating possibility: selective breeding
if intelligence is inherited, could not the general intelligence of a people be improved by encouraging the mating of bright people and discouraging the mating of bright people and discouraging the mating of people who were less bright?
97
What is the nature-nurture controversy?
Galton revised his position: the potential for high intelligence was inherited but it must be nurtured by a proper environment
popularized research on twins
98
What was Galton's ideas on words and images?
developed the first word-association test
among the first to study imagery
99
What was Galton's ideas about mental imagery?
Galton was also among the first, if not the first, to study imagery
have participants imagine scenes
mental imagery was normal distributed: some people could not, some people could a little, and some not
they believed everyone had the same level they did
100
What is anthropometry?
developed in response to his desire to measure the individual differences among humans
collected data on more than 9,000 humans
believed sensory acuity was related to intelligence and could therefore be used as a means to measure intelligence
101
What is the concept of correlation?
developed data analytic techniques
collected vast amounts of data and needed a way to analyze it
initially looked at the data using scatter plots to observe the correlation between variables
later, Karl Pearson developed the mathematical formulation for the correlation coefficient to give a mathematical expression of relationships between variables
with the data, he also observed a regression toward the mean: this states that data points on a particular variable will tend to cluster around the means for that characteristic
102
What were Galton's contributions to psychology?
the study of the nature-nurture question
the use of questionnaires in research
the use of word-association tests
the conduction of twin studies
the study of imagery
the development of correlational techniques
103
Who was James McKeen Cattell?
developed early Galtonian-type tests in the US
first to use the term mental test
correlational analysis indicated little intercorrelation among the tests and little correlation between the tests and success in college
with these negative findings, the interest in mental testing faded
104
Who was Alfred Binet?
wanted to directly measure mental capacity
he was a hypnotist; take a magnet and move it around their body: no one was able to replicate it, suggestion was a confound
he recorded their daughters as they grew up: early longitudinal study on intelligence
105
What is individual psychology?
interested in what makes people different, not their similarities
for Binet, the important variables on which people differ are complex, higher-order processes that vary according to age
his study of these differences was called individual psychology
106
What was the idea of assessing intellectual deficiency by Binet and Simon?
in 1903 Binet and Simon were appointed to the group that the French government commissioned to study the problems of children with intellectual deficiencies in the French schools
it was immediately clear that if children with intellectual deficiencies were to receive special education, it was necessary to have an adequate method of distinguishing them from normal children
107
What was the 1905 Binet-Simon Scale of Intelligence?
Binet and Simo developed the Binet-Simon intelligence scale as a valid means to distinguish between normal children and children with mental deficiencies
the scale was revised several times
Binet believed that intelligence is not a single ability but several
108
What was the revision to the Binet-Simon Scale in 1908?
establishing degrees of difference within "normal" child (age 3-13)
could tell if they were performing at, above, or below their age level
109
What was the revision to the Binet-Simon Scale in 1911?
more refined
the intellectual age: age of the most difficult tasks
110
Who was Stern and what is the Intelligence Quotient?
William Stern introduced the term mental age, which was to be divided by chronological age yielding the intelligence quotient
111
What is Binet's legacy?
Binet urged extreme caution in interpreting intelligence test scores
believed that mental orthopedics could prepare disadvantaged children for school
the orthopedics consisted of exercises that improve a child's will, attention, and discipline; all abilities that Binet thought were necessary for effective education
112
Who was Charles Spearman?
using factor analysis (a complex statistical technique based on correlations), he proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence consisting of a specific factor and a general factor
113
What are two reasons Spearman's conclusions about intelligence are important?
he emphasized the unitary nature of intelligence in contrast to Binet's emphasis on diversity
he was a pioneer in the area of statistics that are used by psychologists
114
Who was Sir Cyril Burt?
his "research findings" caused a scandal in the area of heritability of intelligence
he was accused of fabricating his data, although his conclusions have been confirmed by others such as Cattell and Bouchard
115
What was the scandal of Sir Cyril Burt?
there has been accusation that Burt largely published fraudulent data, but regardless whether his research was real or fabricated, his results were later confirmed by other researchers
116
Who was Henry Goddard?
translated the Binet-Simon scale into English
beginnings of mental testing in the United States
found that the test worked well
117
What was Goddard's study of the "Kallikak" family?
he studied the relationship between family background and intelligence
as a result of the research (which was questionable), Goddard and several leading scientists urged that those with mental deficiencies be sterilized and/or segregated from the rest of society
states actually passed sterilization laws and some had them up until the 1970s
thus also led to the mental testing of immigrants, which in turn was very controversial
it also led to an increase in deportation
118
What is the relationship between mental testing and immigration?
Goddard claimed he could tell that many of the immigrants had mental deficiencies simply by observing their physical characteristics, but to be sure he administered the Binet-Simon scale
on the basis of the test results, many immigrants were labeled "mentally defective", and thousands were deported
as with his earlier work, Goddard assumed that the immigrants' test performance was due mainly to inherited intelligence and not to educational, cultural, or personal experience - all factors that were later found to influence test performance
119
Who was Lewis Terman?
replicating Binet and Simon, distinguishing intellectual disability
found problems with the Binet-Simon scale: application of results were inconsistent (some were too easy or too hard for age group)
120
What are the Stanford-Binet tests?
he and his colleagues adapted the Binet-Simon test to develop the Stanford-Binet test
the development resulted in an average score for children of different ages to be 100
also suggested the intelligence ratio (mental age/chronicle age) be multiplied by 100 to delete the decimal and called it the intelligence quotient (IQ)
121
What was Terman's position on inheritance?
throughout his career he contended that intelligence was largely inherited: believed criminality and anti-social behavior were linked to low IQ, established dogma in psych
agreed with many of the ideas of Goddard: intelligence was inherited but were not looking into it, the perspective was not challenged
122
What was Terman's study of genius?
conducted a longitudinal study on gifted children that continued for more than 80 years
the primary results were: the gifted child becomes a gifted adult
the result could be modulated by environmental factors
one of the first person to study gifted children
123
Who was Leta Hollingworth?
challenged the belief that intelligence is largely inherited and that women are intellectually inferior to males
proposed improved education for gifted children: wouldn't be pushed or given other things, book became policy guide for dealing with gifted children
124
Who was Robert M. Yerkes?
proposed that points be given for questions on the intelligence test and analyzed in this manner without respect to age
got rid of IQ, remove age as a factor in scoring
made it easier to give the test: easily analyzed stats, could be used in group contexts
125
What was the Army Testing Program?
he organized the testing program for the army in World War I
developed the Army Alpha test for literate people and the Army Beta for those who were illiterate
126
What was the concern of the deterioration of national intelligence?
concern following WWI
nation's intelligence level was deteriorating
Yerkes, along with Goddard and Terman, thought that this problem was caused by immigration and that "intellectually inferior" people were reproducing at a faster rate than normal or above-normal people
this view was challenged
it was suggested that intelligence tests could be measuring, at least partially, the effects of early experience and education
127
What were the six points that were claimed as "beyond dispute" in the book The Bell Curve?
there is a general factor of cognitive ability on which humans differ
all standardized tests of academic aptitude or achievement measure this general factor to some degree; IQ tests designed for this purpose measure it more accurately
IQ scores match, to a first degree, whatever people mean when they use the word intelligence or smart in ordinary language
IQ scores are stable, although not perfectly so, over much of the lifespan
properly administered IQ tests are not demonstrably biased against social, economic, ethnic, or racial groups
cognitive ability is substantially inheritable, apparently no less than 40% and nor more than 80%
128
What is modern intelligence testing?
some believed intelligence can't be reduced to one factor
multiple competing conceptions
129
Who are three popular figures in psychometrics?
Quinn McNemar: enhanced Stanford-Binet test
Anne Anastasi: focused on impact of environment
Paul Meehl: we measure statistical constructs
130
Who was David Wechsler?
developed a new intelligence test to better understand adult intelligence
WAIS and WISC
131
What is the Wechsler-Bellevue test?
Wechsler was dissatisfied with the fact that the Stanford-Binet was designed for children, had narrow content, and emphasized speed
he designed the Wechsler-Bellevue scale in 1939 to address these limitations and to test multiple facets of intelligence
it was revised in 1947, re-standardized and released as the WAIS in 1955, and revised and re-standardized as the WAIS-R in 1981; it was again revised and re-standardized as the WAIS-III in 1997
the WISC (1949) was last revised (WISC-R) in 1991, for ages 6-17
there is also a Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, for children aged 3-7, the WPPSI-R (1989)
132
What is intelligence?
from early on, some objected to the innateness bias in discussing intelligence, suggesting that the term be replaced with "general scholastic ability" or "general educational ability"
however, this did not catch on, and most early theorists in intelligence testing and now posit a view of intelligence that is independent of education
it is, however, very difficult to define exactly what this construct "intelligence" is
133
What are some alternatives to the explanation that IQ is linked to eugenics and nativism?
research suggests that children reared under conditions of little human contact can show huge improvements (30-50 IQ points) after being placed in normal environments
Starr & Weinberg (1983) found that disadvantaged adoptees adopted into advantaged homes often out-perform their pre-adoptive peers
Jensen (1977) tested the hypothesis that there are cumulative effects of environmental disadvantage: he hypothesized that older children deprived children should do worse on IQ tests than their younger siblings
he found some support for this hypothesis: about 1 point per year for ten years between 5 and 16 years of age, estimated to be higher if earlier years were included
134
How does womb environment impact IQ?
identical twins can either share one or two placenta, making their womb environment more or less similar
whether they share one or two placenta, the correlation in WAIS vocabulary (in two independent studies) is 0.8-0.95
however, the correlation for WAIS block design is 0.78-0.92 for twins sharing a placenta, but only 0.48-0.61 for those not sharing a placenta
meta-analytic studies have suggested a 20% maternal environment effect for twins and 5% (still large) for siblings
this suggests a potent, complex effect of maternal environment which is confounded with genes
135
In what way is intelligence not stable?
standardized samples in major IQ tests between 1932 and 1981 tended to be higher than their predecessors
overall, humankind appears to have picked up an average of nearly 14 IQ points (one SD) in the last century
similar observations have been made in other countries using other tests
136
Who is Howard Gardner?
Gardner argued that general views of intelligence are too specific and that instead, we ought to recognize more forms of intelligence
proposed his theory of multiple intelligences, postulating 8 relatively independent form of intelligence
137
What is the first stage of early U.S. psychology?
moral and mental philosophy
psychology included topics such as ethics, divinity, and philosophy; to learn psychology was to learn the accepted theology of the day
"American Enlightenment" began in 1714
Samuel Johnson, influenced by Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, wrote a book which contained some topics which were psychological in nature -- child psychology, the nature of consciousness, the nature of knowledge, and perception
138
What is the second stage of early U.S. psychology?
intellectual philosophy
psychology became a seperate discipline
became primarily influenced by the Scottish common sense views
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What is the third stage of early U.S. psychology?
the U.S. Renaissance
psychology becomes an empirical science
late 1880s
publishing of John Dewey's textbook, the first issue of the American Journal of Psychology
James's Principles of Psychology (1890)
psychology began emphasizing individual ifferences, adaptation to the environment, and practicality
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What is the fourth stage of early U.S. psychology?
functionalism
science, emphasis on the individual, and evolutionary theory combined into the school of functionalism
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What are the characteristics of functional psychology?
never a well-defined school
opposed the elementarism of structuralism
focus was to understand the function of the mind
a practical science
research on many participants
concerned for the "why" of mental processes
accepted both mental processes and behavior
more ideographic than nomothetic
directly or indirectly influenced by William James
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Who was William James?
also a big founder of the discipline
bridge between English and American psychology
trying to explore psychological stuff in meaningful ways not to form a specific school
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What was James' crisis?
depression: if we took materialism seriously, then every choice we make is determined, no free will, so then nothing matters
decided to act as if he had free will: led to belief in pragmatism, if an idea we have is useful their is some truth to it
opposed true experimental psychology
radical empiricism: anything in human existence is worth studying
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What was James' principles of psychology?
James' highly influential Principles of Psychology appeared in two volumes, 28 chapters, and a total of 1,393 pages
clear critique of Wundt and psych coming out of England
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What were James' opinions on German psychology?
pragmatism: the belief that is an idea works, it is valid
radical empiricism: all consistently reported aspects of human experience are worthy of study
opposed Wundt's approach to psychology
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What was James' idea of stream of consciousness?
personal to the individual
continuous; cannot be divided up for analysis
always changing
selective; some events are selected for further consideration while others are not
functional; purpose is to aid the individual in adapting to the environment
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What was James' idea of habits and instincts?
habits (instincts) are formed as an activity is repeated
he had a neurophysiological explanation of habit formation
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What are James' steps to developing habits?
put yourself into situations that encourage good habits
don't allow yourself to act contrary to the habit your trying to form
always better to do something completely
can't get by with intentions, only physically doing
force yourself to act in good ways
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What is James' idea of the self?
three components of self (empirical self)
material self: body, family, and all things owned
social self: self known by others; many social selves
spiritual self: state of consciousness, one's own subjective reality
the self as a knower is the awareness of one's empirical self; James was one of the first to examine self-esteem
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What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
event (stimulus) causes a bodily reaction/behavior, which is then experienced as an emotion
1. stimulus
2. bodily change that results from stimulus
3. recognize bodily functions and through recognition feel emotion
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What was James' idea of free will?
science must assume determinism, including psychology, but for certain approaches to the study of humans, the assumption of free will might be fruitful
for voluntary behavior, ideas of various behavioral possibilities are retained from previous experiences: their recollection and a selection (by mental effort) of a behavior is a prerequisite to voluntary behavior
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What is the ideo-motor theory of behavior?
an idea of an action precedes and causes that action
in most cases, ideas and actions flow immediately and automatically producing habitual or reflexive behavior
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What is pragmatism according to James?
pragmatism is the cornerstone of functionalism
behaviors, thoughts, or beliefs must be judged by their consequences
if it works for the individual than it is appropriate
truth must be judged by its effectiveness in the situation: what works is true for that circumstance
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What was James' contribution to psychology?
one of the first to push psychology from one methodological discipline to a more pragmatic one
first to develop a psychology rooted in evolutionary theory
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Who was Charles S. Pierce?
an influential pragmatist like James
stressed the logical rather than the psychological consequences of ideas
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Who was Hugo Munsterberg?
disagreed with James on many points regarding behavior and consciousness
stated that behavior causes ideas rather than ideas cause behavior as James had stated
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What was Munsterberg's applied psychology?
he was one of if not the first applied psychologists
clinical psychology
reciprocal antagonism
forensic psychology
industrial psychology
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What was Munsterberg's forensic psychology?
Munsterberg was the first to apply psychological principles to legal matters, thus creating forensic psychology
eye-witness testimony: often unreliable, memories aren't 100% accurate
interrogation: people might just want to please interrogators
developed the lie detector test
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What was Munsterberg's industrial psychology?
Munsterberg's Vocation and Leaning (1912) and Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (1913) are usually considered the beginning of what later came to be called industrial psychology
how to deal with and select employees
early marketing
personnel selection: hiring based on skills of the task
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What is Munsterberg's Legacy?
very critical of Americans
not well liked over time
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Who was Mary Whiton Calkins?
attended seminars with James and worked with Munsterberg on research, but could not be enrolled in Harvard (women were not admitted at this time)
she took (unofficially) the PhD examination but could not receive her degree
developed a paired-associate technique to study the influence of frequency, recency, and vividness on memory
developed self-psychology, which was her major contribution to psychology
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Who was G. Stanley Hall?
organized the first psychology laboratory in the United States
founded the first psychology journal, American Journal of Psychology
helped organize and was first president of the American Psychological Association
president of Clark University
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What is Hall's idea of developmental psychology?
recapitulation theory states that the development of an individual through their lifetimes mirrors the evolution of the species
ideas on developmental psychology were greatly influenced by this theory
his work in this area did much to stimulate educational psychology and start the child development movement in the United States
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What was Hall's opposition to coeducation?
Hall has several ideas about adolescence including ideas about sexual behavior, religious conversion, and sex-segregated schools
he also believed that adolescence was a good time to study human instinctual makeup
women need t be trained for motherhood and men for work so co-educating was bad
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What was Hall's idea of psychology and religion?
Hall believed that religious conversion during adolescence was "a natural, normal, universal, and necessary process"
adolescence was a period of religious conversion: there needed to be a moment they turn their elf love onto others
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What is Hall's legacy?
in 1908, Hall invited prominent European psychologists to Clark for its 20th anniversary
Hall invited Wundt, Freud, and Jung, but Wundt had a prior engagement
Freud remarked that this visit did much to further the acceptance of his theory around the world
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Who was Francis Cecil Sumner?
Hall's last graduate student and first African American to receive a PhD in psychology
argued for segregated higher education; however, evidence indicates that his public statements did not match his private beliefs and activities: this was a pragmatic way to obtain funding for African American higher education
developed the psychology department at Howard University into a major center for training African American psychologists
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Who was Kenneth Clark?
trained with Sumner
both he and his wife obtained their PhDs from Columbia University
they did pioneer work on the developmental effects of prejudice, discrimination, and segregation on children
extremely instrumental in the efforts to desegregate the school systems
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Who was Edward A. Pace?
priest and psychology
founding member of APA
advocate for women in higher education
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What is Dewey's analysis?
wrote "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology"
many think this marks the formal beginning of functionalism
proposed that the three elements of the reflex (sensory processes, brain processes, motor response) must be viewed as a coordinated system directed toward a goal, this goal is usually related to the survival of the organism
influential in creating what came to be called "progressive" education, which stated that education should be student-oriented and not subject-oriented and students should learn by doing: also involved in liberal causes
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Who was James Angell?
presented the three major points of functionalism
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What are the three main points of functionalism?
functional psychology is interested in mental operations, not conscious elements
mental processes mediate between the needs of the organism and the environment; mental functions help the organism survive
mind and body cannot be separated, they act as a unit in an organism's struggle for survival
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Who was Harvey Carr?
because learning is a major tool used in adjusting to the environment, it was a major concern of functionalism
Carr proposed the adaptive act, which has three components
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What is the adaptive act?
a motive that acts as a stimulus for behavior (such as hunger of thirst)
an environmental setting or the situation the organism is in
a response that satisfies the motive
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Who was James McKeen Cattell?
proposed that psychology should be applying its methods in all human activity because that is what humans do
through his many editorships and ownerships of journals (including Psychological Review), he advanced the discipline of psychology and particularly functional psychology
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Who was Robert Woodworth?
interested in what and why of peoples behavior, particularly motivation
he called his brand of psychology dynamic psychology
he formulated the symbols S-O-R to include the organism and particularly the organism's motivation
his text, Experimental Psychology, remained the standard text in experimental psychology for two decades
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Who was Edward Lee Thorndike?
influenced by James
best known for animal research
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Who was George John Romanes?
Romanes was Darwin's friend and supporter
considered the founder of the comparative approach
he was a Canadian by birth, born in Kingston, Ontario (but moved to England while young)
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What is anthropomorphism?
understand animal behaviors through human characteristics, a difference of degree
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What is anthrocentrism?
from the perspective of the human
belief that human cognitive processes are the same as animal processes
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What is the problem with anecdotes?
even when stories are true, there are problems with anecdotal animal evidence
selection bias: animal perform many behaviors and some will appear intelligent to the human observer (although 99% may not)
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Who was C. Lloyd Morgan?
Morgan was a competitor of Romanes and took a more experimental approach, stressing the importance of objective observations
his textbook pushed monism on the basis that the mind and body are both products of evolution
can't believe in anthropocentrism, but have to anthropomorphize
non-human animals cannot posses human attributes, but can posses something lower evolutionarily
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Who was Margaret Floy Washburn?
published several books and articles on animal psychology
in her book, The Animal Mind, Washburn inferred consciousness in animals at all phylogenetic levels
infer animal consciousness on the basis of their behavior
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What is Thorndike's puzzle box?
used the apparatus called a puzzle box to study trial-and-error learning using cats
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What were the conclusions drawn from Thorndike's puzzle box?
learning is incremental
learning occurs automatically without being mediated by thinking
same principles of learning apply to all mammals
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What is the law of exercise and effect?
the law of effect states the following: if an association is followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" it will be strengthened, if it is followed by an "annoying state of affairs" it will be weakened
the law of exercise states that the more often an association is practiced the stronger it becomes
Thorndike went on to abandon the law of exercise and discarded the second part of the law of effect
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What is the transfer of learning?
identical elements theory of transfer states that the extent to which information learning in one situation will transfer to another situation is determined by the similarity between two situations
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Who was James Mark Baldwin?
co-founded the Psychological Review with Cattell
he was also the first editor of APA's other flagship journal, Psychological Bulletin
