Topic 4: Psychology as a Helping Profession Flashcards
1
Q
Mental Illness
A
the condition that is said to exist when a person’s emotions, thoughts, or behavior deviate substantially from what is considered to be normal at a certain time and place in history
2
Q
Medical Model of Mental Illness
A
the assumption that mental illness results from such biological causes as brain damage, impaired neural transmissions, or biochemical abnormalities
3
Q
Psychological Model of Mental Illness
A
the assumption that mental illness results from such psychological causes as conflict, anxiety, faulty beliefs, frustration, or traumatic experience
4
Q
Supernatural Model of Mental Illness
A
the assumption that mental illness is caused by malicious, spiritual entities entering the body or by the will of God
5
Q
Psychotherapy
A
any attempt to help a person with a mental disturbance
what all versions of psychotherapy have had in common throughout history are a sufferer, a helper, and some form of ritualistic activity
6
Q
Natural Law
A
the belief prevalent in the eighteenth century that undesirable or sinful behavior has negative consequences such as mental or physical disease or poverty, and virtuous behavior has positive consequences such as good health or posperity
7
Q
Sympathetic Magic
A
the belief that by influencing things that are similar to a person or that were once close to that person, one can influence the person
8
Q
Homeopathic Magic
A
the type of sympathetic magic involving the belief that doing something to a likeliness of a person will influence that person
9
Q
Contagious Magic
A
a type of sympathetic magic
it involves the belief that what one does to something that a person once owned or that was close to a person will influence that person
10
Q
Trepanation
A
the technique of chipping or drilling holes in a person’s skull, presumably used by primitive humans to allow evil spirits to escape
11
Q
Hippocrates (ca. 460-377 B.C.)
A
argued that all mental and physical disorders had natural causes and that treatment of such disorders should consist of such things as rest, proper diet, and exercise
12
Q
Philippe Pinel (1745-1826)
A
among the first, in modern times, to view people with mental illness as sick people rather than criminals, beasts, or possessed individuals
in the asylums of which he was in charge, Pinel ordered that patients be unchained and treated with kindness in a peaceful atmosphere
Pinel was also responsible for many innovations in the treatment and understanding of mental illness
13
Q
Benjamin Rush (1745-1813)
A
often called the first U.S. psychiatrist
Rush advocated the humane treatment of people with mental illnesses but still clung to some earlier treatments, such as bloodletting and the use of rotating chairs
14
Q
Dorothea Lynde Dix (1802-1887)
A
caused several states (and foreign countries) to reform their facilities for treating mental illness by making them more available to those needing them and more humane in their treatment
15
Q
Emil Kraeplin (1856-1926)
A
published a list of categories of mental illness in 1883
until recent times, many clinicians used this list to diagnose mental illness
today the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (2000) serves the same purpose
Kraepelin was also a pioneer in the field known today as psychopharmacology
16
Q
Lightner Witmer (1867-1956)
A
considered to be the founder of clinical psychology
17
Q
Clinical Psychology
A
the profession founded by Witmer, the purpose of which was to apply the principles derived from psychological research to the diagnosis and treatment of disturbed individuals
18
Q
Thomas Szasz (1920-2012)
A
psychiatrist best known for his book The Myth of Mental Illness, which reconsiders how abnormality should be understood and treated in the current era
19
Q
Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815)
A
used what he thought were his strong magnetic powers to redistribute the magnetic fields of his patients, thus curing them of their ailments
20
Q
Animal Magnetism
A
a force that Mesmer and others believed is evenly distributed throughout the bodies of healthy people and unevenly distributed in the bodies of unhealthy people
21
Q
Contagion Effect
A
the tendency for people to be more susceptible to suggestion when in a group than when alone
22
Q
Marquis de Puysegur (1751-1825)
A
found that placing patients in a sleeplike trance was as effective in alleviating ailments as was Mesmer’s approach, which necessitated a crisis
he also discovered a number of basic hypnotic phenomena
23
Q
Artificial Somnambulism
A
the sleeplike trance that Puysegur created in his patients
it was later called a hypnotic trance
24
Q
Posthypnotic Amnesia
A
the tendency for a person to forget what happens to him or her while under hypnosis
25
Posthypnotic Suggestion
a suggestion that a person receives while under hypnosis and acts on when they are again in the waking state
26
Auguste Ambroise Liebeault (1823-1904)
founder of the Nancy school of hypnotism
27
Nancy School
a group of physicians who believed that because all humans are suggestible, all humans can be hypnotized
28
Hippolyte Bernheim (1840-1919)
a member of the Nancy school of hypnotism who believed that anything a highly suggestible patient believed would improve their condition would do so
29
Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893)
unlike most of the physicians of his day, concluded that hysteria was a real disorder
he theorized the inherited predisposition toward hysteria could become actualized when traumatic experience or hypnotic suggestion causes an idea or a complex of ideas to become dissociated from consciousness
isolated from rational control, such dissociated ideas become powerful enough to cause the symptoms associated with hysteria, for example, paralysis
30
Pierre Janet (1859-1947)
like Charcot, theorized that components of the personality, such as traumatic memories, could become dissociated from the rest of the personality and that these dissociated components are responsible for the symptoms of hysteria and for hypnotic phenomena
31
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
the founder of psychoanalysis, a school of psychology that stresses the conflict between the animalistic impulses possessed by humans and the human desire to live in a civilized society
32
Josef Breuer (1842-1925)
the person Freud credited with the founding of psychoanalysis
Breuer discovered that when the memory of a traumatic event is recalled under deep relaxation or hypnosis, there is a release of emotional energy (catharsis) and the symptoms caused by the repressed memory are relieved
33
Pathogenic Ideas
ideas that cause physical disorders
34
Cathartic Method
the alleviation of hysterical symptoms by allowing pathogenic ideas to be expressed consciously
35
Transference
the process by which a patient responds to the therapist as if the therapist were a relevant person in the patient's life
36
Countertransference
the process by which a therapist becomes emotionally involved with a patient
37
Resistance
the tendency for patients to inhibit the recollection of traumatic experiences
38
Free Association
Freud's major tool for studying the contents of the unconscious mind
with free association, a patient is encouraged to express freely everything that comes to their mind
39
Studies on Hysteria
the boom Breuer and Freud published in 1895 that is usually viewed as marking the formal beginning of the school of psychoanalysis
40
Repression
the holding of traumatic memories in the unconscious mind because pondering them consciously would cause too much anxiety
41
Unconscious Motivation
the causes of our behavior of which we are unaware
42
Seduction Theory
Freud's contention that hysteria is caused by a sexual attack
someone familiar to or related to the hysteric patient had attacked them when the patient was a young child
Freud later concluded that in most cases such attacks are imagined rather than real
43
Dream Analysis
a major tool that Freud used in studying the contents of the unconscious mind
Freud thought that the symbols dreams contain could yield information about repressed memories, just as hysterical symptoms could
for Jung, dreams provided a mechanism by which inhibited parts of the psyche might be given expression
therefore, for Jung, dream analysis indicated which aspects of the psyche are underdeveloped
44
Manifest Content
what a dream appears to be about
45
Latent Content
what a dream is actually about
46
Wish Fulfillment
in an effort to satisfy bodily needs, the id conjures up images of objects or events that will satisfy those needs
47
Dream Work
the mechanism that distorts the meaning of a dream, thereby making it more tolerable to the dreamer
48
Condensation
the type of dream work that causes several people, objects, or events to be condensed into one dream signal
49
Displacement
the ego defense mechanism by which a goal that does not provide anxiety is substituted for one that does
also, the type of dream work that causes the dreamer to dream of something symbolically related to anxiety-provoking events rather than dreaming about the anxiety-provoking events themselves
50
Oedipus Complex
the situation that, according to Freud, typically manifests itself during the phallic stage of psychosexual development, whereby children sexually desire the parent of the opposite sex and are hostile toward the parent of the same sex
51
Parapraxes
relatively minor errors in everyday living such as losing and forgetting things, slips of the tongue, mistakes in writing, and small accidents
Freud believed that such errors are often unconsciously motivated
52
Overdetermination
Freud's observation that behavioral and psychological phenomena often have two or more causes
53
Id
according to Freud, the powerful, entirely unconscious portion of the personality that contains all instincts and is, therefore, the driving force for the entire personality
54
Instincts
according to Freud, the motivational forces behind personality
each instinct has a source which is a bodily deficiency of some type, an aim of removing the deficiency, an object, which is anything capable of removing the deficiency, and an impetus, which is a driving force whose strength is determined by the magnitude of the deficiency
55
Libido
for Freud, the collective energy associated with the life instinct
for Jung, the creative life force that provides the energy for personal growth
56
Ego
according to Freud, the component of the personality that is responsible for locating events in the environment that will satisfy the needs of the id without violating the values of the superego
according to Jung, that aspect of the psyche that is responsible for problem solving, remembering, and perceiving
57
Superego
according to Freud, the internalized values that act as a guide for a person's conduct
58
Death Instinct
the instinct that has death as its goal (sometimes called the death wish)
59
Anxiety
the feeling of impending danger
Freud distinguished three types of anxiety
objective anxiety, which is caused by a physical danger
neurotic anxiety, which is caused by the feeling that one is going to be overwhelmed by their id
moral anxiety, which is caused by violating one or more values internalized in the superego
60
Ego Defense Mechanism
the strategies available to the ego for distorting the anxiety-provoking aspects of reality, thus making them more tolerable
61
Anna Freud (1895-1982)
became the official spokesperson for psychoanalysis after her father's death
in addition to perpetuating traditional psychoanalytic concepts, she extended them into new areas such as child psychology, education, and child rearing
by elaborating on autonomous ego functions, she encouraged the development of ego psychology
62
Melanie Klein (1882-1960)
an early child analyst whose theory emphasized the importance of the mother-child relationship and the development of the superego during the oral stage of development
by using play therapy, Klein believed that child analysis could begin as early as 2 years of age
Klein's ideas concerning the psychology of children were often in conflict with those of Anna Freud
63
Developmental Lines
a concept introduced by Anna Freud describing the major adjustments that typify the transition between childhood and adolescence and young adulthood
64
Altruistic Surrender
an ego defense mechanism, postulated by Anna Freud, whereby a person avoids personal anxiety by vicariously living the life of another person
65
Identification with the Aggressor
an ego defense mechanism, postulated by Anna Freud, whereby the fear caused by a person is reduced by adopting the feared person's values
66
Ego Psychology
psychology that emphasizes the autonomous functions of the ego and minimizes the conflicts among the ego, id, and superego
67
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
a psychoanalyst best known for his stage theory of life-span development and his psychological biographies
68
Carl Jung (1875-1961)
an early follower of Freud who eventually broke with him because of Freud's emphasis on sexual motivation
Jung developed his own theory, which emphasized the collective unconscious and self-actualization
69
Personal Unconscious
Jung's term for the place that stores material from one's lifetime of which one is currently not conscious
70
Collective Unconscious
Jung's term for the part of the unconscious mind that reflects universal human experience through the ages
for Jung, the collective unconscious is the most powerful component of the personality
71
Archetype
according to Jung, an inherited predisposition to respond emotionally to certain categories of experience
72
Introversion
according to Jung, the attitude toward life that is characterized by social isolation and an introspective nature
73
Extroversion
according to Jung, the attitude toward life that is characterized by gregarious and a willingness to take risks
74
Synchronicity
according to Jung, what occurs when unrelated events converge in a person's life in a meaningful way
75
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
an early follower of Freud who left the Freudian camp and created his own theory pf personality, which emphasized the conscious mind and the individual creation of a worldview, guiding fictions, and a lifestyle in order to overcome feelings of inferiority and to seek perfection
76
Compensation
according to Adler, the making up for a weakness by developing strengths in other areas
77
Overcompensation
according to Adler, the conversion of a weakness into a strength
78
Feelings of Inferiority
according to Adler, those feelings that all humans try to escape by becoming powerful or superior
79
Inferiority Complex
according to Adler, the condition one experiences when overwhelmed by feelings of inferiority instead of being motivated towards success by those feelings
80
Lifestyle
according to Adler, the way of life that a person chooses to implement the life's goals derived from the person's worldview
81
Social Interest
the concern for other humans and for society that Adler believed characterizes a healthy lifestyle
82
Creative Self
according to Adler, the component of the personality that provides humans with the freedom to choose their own destinies
83
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
trained in the Freudian tradition, she later broke away from the Freudians and created her own theory of mental disorders that emphasized cultural rather than biological (such as sexual) causes
84
Basic Hostility
according to Horney, the feeling of anger that a child experiences when exposed to the basic evil
85
Basic Anxiety
according to Horney, the feeling of being alone and helpless in a hostile world that a child experiences when they repress basic hostility
86
Moving Toward People
the neurotic adjustment pattern suggested by Horney by which people adjust to a world perceived as hostile by being compliant
87
Moving Against People
the neurotic adjustment pattern suggested by Horney by which people adjust to a world perceived as hostile by gaining power over people and events
88
Moving Away From People
the neurotic adjustment pattern suggested by Horney by which people adjust to a world perceived as hostile by creating a distance between themselves and the people and events in that world
89
What are the several terms used as names for mental illness?
several terms have been used throughout history for what we may consider mental illness
historically, terms used were made, lunatic, maniac, and insane
currently, terms such as psychopathology and abnormal behavior are used in addition to mental illness
90
What are the characteristics of mental illness?
several recurring themes are part of the description
cultural beliefs and traditions affect what a society may call abnormal or not
91
What is harmful behavior
behavior which is self-mutilating or suicidal is generally considered abnormal
92
What are unrealistic thoughts and perceptions?
a person's beliefs or perceptions which differ markedly from those considered normal at a certain time and place in history are considered abnormal and signs of mental illness
delusions are abnormal beliefs, hallucinations are abnormal perceptions
93
What are inappropriate emotions?
emotional displays are inappropriate based on the community in which one lives
the person is often said to be mentally ill
94
What is unpredictable behavior?
beliefs and emotions experience sudden shifts
this may be a sign of mental illness
95
What is the biological explanation of mental illness?
typically referred to as the medical model of mental illness
assumes that all disease is caused by a malfunction of some aspect of the body, mainly the brain
these malfunctions may be inherited either directly or indirectly, such as predisposition toward mental illness
other events which may affect biological functioning, may also result in problems, such as injuries, tumors, toxins, pollution, disease, excessive stress, physiological imbalances, among other things
96
What is the psychological explanation of mental illness?
psychological events are the causes of abnormal behavior
events such as grief, anxiety, fear, disappointment, frustration, guilt, or conflict are emphasized
biological and psychological explanations of mental illness most often exist simultaneously
97
What is the supernatural explanation of mental illness?
disorders, both mental and physical, are inflicted on people by some mortal or immortal beings
this model was popular during the Middle Ages
98
What is psychotherapy?
defined as any attempt to help a person with a mental disturbance
the common elements in the psychotherapy situation has always bee a sufferer, a helper, and a systematic ritual or practice through which help is proffered
99
What are the basic reasons for seeking help?
removing, modifying, or controlling distressing psychological states
changing undesirable behavior patterns
promoting more positive personal growth ad the development of greater meaning in one's life
100
What is the psychological approach?
therapist's job to help the person change behavior: this may take and has taken many different forms
these forms range from observing (by watching a drama) or personally reenacting a traumatic experience in order to create a catharsis, listening to relaxing music, offering support, reassurance, and love, and analyzing dreams, to teaching better coping skills
natural law: belief that you get what you deserve in life
101
What is the supernatural approach?
to dispel supernatural forces from the person, the primitive doctor/priest/"therapist" would attempt to coax the invading forces out by various means
ranged from appeals and bribery to exorcism, magical rituals, trepanation and incantations
examples: bleeding a patient, removing a portion of the skull (called trepanation)
102
What is homeopathic magic?
based on the principle of similarity
belief that what one did to a model of a person would affect the person
103
What is contagious magic?
based on the principle of contiguity
belief that what was once close to someone would continue to exert influence on that person
104
What is the biological approach?
Hippocrates and later Galen proposed that many ailments were a function of bodily, natural causes
thus natural remedies were prescribed
things such as baths, fresh air, special diets. and rest were prescribed
it was the condition of the brain then, that determined whether a person was mental normal or abnormal
105
What was the return to the supernatural approach?
took place during the Middle Ages and had a religious bent
people with abnormal behavior were seen as possessed by demons or witches or in some other way in alliance with the devil
the ages of witch hunts and the inquisition began in this time but carried through into the Renaissance and Reformation
the Malleus Maleficarum was the official manual for the Inquisition
in the Renaissance, many people with mental illness were locked up in "lunatic asylums"
106
What was the St. Mary of Bethlehem Hospital?
it came to be known as Bedlam, this institution was typical of such places at the time, inmates were chained, beaten, fed only enough to stay alive, subjected to bloodletting, and put on public displays for visitors
107
What was the improvement in the treatment of mental illness in the Middle Ages?
despite the witch hunts and trials and persecutions, several people argued against the notion of possession by evil spirits and believed that natural causes and natural remedies could be beneficial for those behaving abnormality
around the 1600s mental illness began to be viewed as having natural rather than supernatural causes, but it was still poorly understood
treatment included the popular procedure of bloodletting
other methods were devised in hope of "shocking the patients back to their senses"
for example, Spinning people at high speeds in chairs; throwing cold water on them
these conditions continued well into the 18th century
Paracelsus differentiated between material and spiritual (psychological) diseases
The Deception of Demons was written as a rebuttal to the Malleus Maleficarum
108
Who was Phillippe Pinel?
in the late 18th century, he proceeded slowly to improve the treatment of the mentally ill
first, he unchained them and segregated them based on their behavior
he encourages occupational therapy, favored baths ad mild purgatives as physical treatments, and argued forcefully against the use of any type of punishment or exorcism
others, like William Tuke and Vincenzo Chiarugi, followed his lead and treatment improved
109
Who was Benjamin Rush?
wrote a book in which he encouraged more humane treatment
however, he still advocated bloodletting and use of rotating and tranquilizing chairs
110
Who was Dorothea Dix?
her work brought about institutional reforms in many states and across Europe
111
Who was Emil Kraepelin?
in 1883, Kraepelin published a list of mental disorders that was so thorough it was adopted by the world over and has lasted until recent times
he based his classification of mental diseases on what caused them, how much they involved the brain and nervous system, their symptoms, and their treatment
112
Who was Lightner Witmer?
founded the first psychological clinic
founded the journal Psychological Clinic
113
What were the three lasting impressions Witmer had on clinical psychology?
experimental psychology ca be useful in helping people
this help can best be provided through a special profession (clinical psychology) that is independent of both medicine and education
a commitment that clinical psychology should be highly research oriented and be closely aligned with basic psychology
114
What is the medical model?
supports the view that mental illness has organic origins just as any other illness
115
What is the debate between psychological and medical models?
still contested today and has many supporters on both sides of the issue
116
Who was Thomas Szasz?
wrote an influential book, The Myth of Mental Illness: the book argues that unless an illness has a neurophysiological basis, it is not an illness at all
in the case of what has been labeled mental illness: it reflects problem in living or nonconformity, but not a true illness
thus, the diagnosis of mental illness reflects a social, political, or moral judgment, not a medical one
labeling someone with mental illness or disease implies that they are not responsible for solving the "problems in living" which they have
labeling a person with a mental illness or disease can, and in many cases does, encourage the person to act in ways dictated by the diagnosis
117
Who was Franz Anton Mesmer?
developed a "magnetic" cure in which magnetic forces were employed to heal (later called animal magnetism)
became well known for his cure's abilities: as his fame grew, his critics became more relentless
eventually, a commission of inquiry discounted: Mesmer's claim and animal magnetism died out
118
What is the contagion effect found by Mesmer?
patients would not respond to suggestion when alone with a physician, but would do so readily after seeing others respond
119
Who was Marquis de Puysegur?
developed what he called artificial somnambulism, which was a trance-like state under which the person would respond to his commands
observed many of the phenomena, which we know of today with hypnosis, including posthypnotic amnesia and posthypnotic suggestions
120
Who were John Elliotson, James Esdaile, and James Braid?
examined this process as a means to produce an anesthetic response for use during surgery
despite the banning of its use by the medical establishment, this method was used successfully on many occasions
121
What was the Nancy School?
the "school" grew out of the work of Ambroise Auguste Liebeault with hypnosis with his patients, which was located just outside of the city of Nancy, France
Hippolyte Bernheim became the major spokesperson for this school
Bernheim contended that all humans are suggestible, but some are more so than others; the suggestible a person is, the easier it is to hypnotize him/her
122
What was Charcot's explanation of hypnosis and hysteria?
Charcot developed the use of hypnosis for treatment of hysteria, and concluded that hypnotizability indicated the presence of hysteria
through hypnosis the doctor could relieve the effects of traumatic events, which would dispel the hysteria symptoms
Charcot was also a very accomplished neurologist
Freud studied with Charcot for a time and was greatly influenced by him
Pierre Janet, a student of Charcot's used hypnosis to discover dissociated memories, and when they were brought to the attention of a patient, his/her hysterical symptoms often abated
123
Who was Milton Erickson?
used to cure people by talking in a very roundabout way about patient's symptoms, subtly suggesting ways to view their symptoms in non-symptomatic ways
indirect hypnosis: uses stories, metaphors, etc. to improve outcomes, talk about vomit in relation to pleasant things to reduce fear
124
How did the ideas of Leibniz, Goethe, and Herbart contribute to psychoanalysis?
Leibniz's monadology proposed levels of awareness from clear and unaware
Goethe described human existence as consisting of a constant struggle between conflicting emotions and tendencies, which no doubt influenced Freud, as Goethe was one of Freud's favorite authors
Herbart suggested that there was a threshold above which an ideas is conscious and below which an idea is unconscious
125
How did the ideas of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche contribute to psychoanalysis?
Schopenhauer believed that humans were governed more by irrational desires than by reason
he also anticipated Freud's concepts of repression and sublimation
Nietzsche also saw humans as engaged in a perpetual battle between the irrational and the rational
126
What components of psychoanalysis were borrowed by other thinkers by Freud?
Fechner's concept of the iceberg to explain consciousness and unconsciousness
Helmholtz's concept of the conservation of energy within humans influenced Freud to postulate a use of psychic energy to be distributed in various ways
127
What was Freud's theory a synthesis of?
it may be said that Freud's theory was a synthesizing of his philosophical heritage and a product of the Zeitgeist of his time
128
What was the influence of his parents' relationship on Freud?
Freud's knowledge of his parents' relationship ad the relationship with his mother influenced him greatly
129
What was Ernst Brucke's influence on Freud?
Freud credited Ernst Brucke as the person who most influenced him during his medical studies
130
What were Freud's experiments with cocaine?
Freud began experimenting with cocaine: found that it was very beneficial and had no side effects
Freud gave a colleague cocaine to treat a morphine addiction: the man died a cocaine addict
Freud's medical reputation was damaged: this led to further skepticism of his theory
131
Who was Josef Breuer?
Freud worked with Breuer with the famous case of Anna O.
using hypnosis as his therapeutic method, Breuer found that discovering the origin of her physical symptoms, which were usually traumatic experiences, resulted in the symptom being relieved
he called this the "cathartic method"
the phenomena which were to be called transference and countertransference, were also observed during this case
132
What was the influence of Charcot on Freud?
Freud studied with Charcot for a while, during which he learned several lessons which later influenced him in his work
133
What was the development of free association by Freud?
Freud found hypnosis to be ineffective in several cases and thus attempted to find another method
eventually found that simply encouraging the patient to speak freely about whatever comes to mind seemed to work just as well as hypnosis at uncovering memories once you get past the resistance displayed by the patient
134
What is the idea regarding symptoms in psychoanalysis?
can be symbolic representations of underlying traumatic experiences or conflicts, which are repressed
the repressed experiences or conflicts do not go away
the most effective way to make repressed material conscious is through free association
135
What is the idea regarding unconscious motivation in psychoanalysis?
important element of psychoanalysis and Freud emphasized the role of sex in unconscious motivation
136
What was The Project for a Scientific Psychology by Freud?
the purpose of Project was to explain psychological phenomena in purely neurophysical terms
in other words, he intended to apply the principles of Helmholtzian physiology, in which he was trained, to the study of the mind
137
What is seduction theory?
role of sexual attack (seduction)
from his work with patients with hysteria, he concluded that sexual attack (seduction) was the basis of all hysteria
he received at least some criticism for the proposal
he later abandoned the idea
138
Why did Freud study dreams?
Freud contended that to be an effective psychoanalyst, the individual must also be psychoanalyzed
because there was no person to psychoanalyze hum, he must do it himself
he could not use free association on himself, so he needed another avenue for his self-analysis
he determined that dreams could be symbolic representations of repressed thoughts
dream analysis became a second method for tapping into the unconscious
139
What is manifest content?
what the dream is apparently about (description)
140
What is latent content?
what the dream is really about (interpretation and symbolism)
141
What is wish fulfillment?
every dream is a wish fulfillment, a symbolic expression of a wish that the dreamer could not express or satisfy directly without experiencing anxiety
142
What is dream work?
to analyze dreams properly, one must be trained and understand dream work, which distinguishes the wish actually being expressed in the dream
includes condensation (one element of a dream symbolizes several things i waking life) and displacement (where one dreams about something symbolically similar to an anxiety-provoking event)
143
What is the Oedipus complex?
through Freud's own dream analysis, he confirmed his belief that young males tend to love their mothers and hate their fathers
from this, infantile sexuality became an important ingredient in his general theory of unconscious motivation
144
What are parapraxes?
are relatively minor errors in everyday living
examples: slips of the tongue, forgetting things, losing things, small accidents, and mistakes in writing
all behavior is motivated, but the causes of behavior are usually unconscious: therefore, people seldom know why they act as they do
often unconsciously motivated
behavior is overdetermined, which means that behavior often has more than one cause
145
What is humor in psychoanalysis?
people often use humor in the form of jokes to express unacceptable sexual and aggressive tendencies
146
What is religion in psychoanalysis?
the basis of religion is the human feeling of helplessness and insecurity
147
What happened when Freud was invited to Clark University in 1909?
invited to Clark University, along with Jung and Ferenczi, in 1909 by G. Stanley Hall
his lectures were criticized, but reactions were generally favorable
148
What were Freud's Introductory Lectures of Psychoanalysis?
his series of five lectures was later expanded into his influential Introductory Lectures of Psychoanalysis
149
What was Freud's early theory of the id, the ego, and the superego?
the conscious: those things of which we are aware at a given moment
the preconscious: things of which we are not aware but of which we could easily become aware
the unconscious: memories which are being actively repressed
later expanded his views with the concepts of id, ego, and superego
150
What are life instincts?
include sex, hunger, and thirst
these instincts prolong life
151
What are death instincts?
seek to terminate life
these instincts manifest as suicide, masochism, or aggression
152
What are Freud's three types of anxiety?
objective anxiety: snarling dog, stems from the environment
neurotic anxiety: stems from id, when we've repressed the id too much
moral anxiety: stems from superego, occurs when we violate internalized norms or values
153
How does the ego deal with anxiety in psychoanalysis?
to deal with objective anxiety, the ego must deal with the physical environment
to deal with neurotic and moral anxiety, the ego must use one or more processes called ego defense mechanism
154
What is the ego defense mechanism of repression?
ideas, memories, desires which are in the unconscious can enter consciousness only in disguised form so that they do not cause anxiety
these ideas, memories, and desires are said to be repressed
155
What is the ego defense mechanism of displacement?
replacing an object or goal that produces anxiety with one that does not
156
What is the ego defense mechanism of rationalization?
providing a rational, logical but false reason for a failure or shortcoming
157
What is the ego defense mechanism of reaction formation?
when a person has a desire to do something but doing it could cause great anxiety, they do the opposite of what they really want to do
158
What is the ego defense mechanism of regression?
running away from anxiety to do a primal task
159
What is the ego defense mechanism of projection?
putting something we don't like about ourselves onto someone else
160
What is the ego defense mechanism of introjection?
putting good qualities of people we look up to onto us
161
What was the process of development described by Freud?
Freud believed that at different ages there are different erogenous zones: correspond to the part of the body on which sexual pleasure is concentrated
each stage refers to a particular erogenous zone: according to Freud, the experiences a child has during each stage determine, to a large extent, his or her adult personality
the experiences could result in the person becoming fixated at that stage and affect his/her personality as an adult
162
What are Freud's psychosexual stages of development?
oral: zone is mouth
anal: related to toilet training, learning to control the body
phallic: zone is genitals, introjection of values and character of same-sex paret
latency: age 5/6 to puberty, sexual urges sublimated to other activities
genital: sexual desire, unrepressable
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What was the historical portrayal of Freud?
Freud and his followers attempted to create an image of Freud being a lonely, heroic figure who was discriminated against because he was Jewish
also, his ideas were so revolutionary that the established medical community could not accept them
both of these have been challenged historically
164
What is the relationship between Freud's theories and science?
Freud didn't see what he did as out of line with humanities, didn't see it as a science
"Freudian theory is problematic because it is not falsifiable": this is reducing all ideas to the standard of scientific fallacy of scientific reductionism
165
What were the revisions to the Freudian theory?
in "The Aetiology of Hysteria", Freud wrote that non of Freud's patients reported a seduction of any kind
there is evidence now that he manipulated events during therapy as to confirm that hysteria had a sexual origin
166
What is the reality of repressed memories?
there is a current debate over the accuracy of repressed memories
many researchers accept them as valid, but many do not
based on her research, Elizabeth Loftus has concluded that most, if not all, reports of repressed memories are false
if her conclusion is accurate, why do so many individuals claim to have such memories? --> one possible reason is that the creation of such memories satisfies a personal need
167
What are the positive contributions of Freud?
expansion of psychology's domain
psychoanalysis
understanding of normal behavior
generalization of psychology to other fields
168
Who was Karl Abraham?
Freud saw him as his best pupil
169
Who was Max Eitingon?
popularized psychoanalysis in Europe
170
Who was Alfred Ernest Jones?
wrote Freud's official biography
171
Who was Otto Rank?
became Freud's right hand man
extended psychoanalysis to art and myths
wrote "Trauma of Birth" --> talked about separation anxiety and critiqued the Oedipus complex so they had a falling out
172
Who was Carl Jung?
started out as a doctor
used dream analysis: contacted Freud and they hit it off, Freud thought Jung would be his successor
he and Freud had a big argument and falling out
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What were the major contributions of Jung?
personal unconscious: contains repressed or forgotten memories or experiences
collective unconscious: we participate in it, the cultural unconscious, reflection of a totality of different experiences people have had in a time
causality, synchronicity, and dreams: show parts of psyche we need to examine in waking
psychological types: personality characteristics, extroversion and introversion
anima: repressed feminine in males
animus: repressed masculine in females
174
What is the idea of organ inferiority by Adler?
we are born with something that is wrong
we often compensate for these weaknesses by getting stronger somewhere else
when they overcompensate they fix their weakness
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What were the major contributions by Alfred Adler?
inferiority and compensation
worldview: relationship with parents leads to development of specific worldview
guiding fiction: goal they will strive for in their life
lifestyles: are the daily things we do to achieve goal, but they disordered, one has to feel safe ad secure in the world to want to help others
176
Who was Wilhelm Reich?
considered too radical by Freud, Reich centralized sex
tried to reconcile Marxism and psychoanalysis
Reich's treatment approach: thought massage could be useful, i actively releasing tension points it would help
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What were the major contributions made by Reich?
character types: unconscious things are held in our bodies, how we carry ourselves physically, blocks or rings form the basis of types, character armor
psychology of fascism: describes Nazi Germany, repression of sexuality in German population, parent pushed sexual repression, expand that to create society that protects and reduces anxiety fear of sexuality is embodied
orgone
178
What are the types of character armor described by Reich?
schizoid: when child feels they aren't wanted, unemotional rigidity
oral: dependency, posture that pulls a person down, disempowers a person, so forces them into dependence
psychopathic: child is manipulated by parents, strong above but weak below, reflects tendency to need to control others
masochistic: when child is unable to draw boundaries, excessively muscular or fat, allows oneself to be judged
rigid: repeatedly shamed or denied child, isolation of love and sex, split between heart and pelvis
179
Who was Anna Freud?
a pioneer in childhood psychoanalysis
revised her father's theory of defense mechanisms
founder of ego psychology
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What was ego psychology developed by Anna Freud?
significant differences between analyzing children and adults
these differences cause Anna to emphasize the ego more in child analysis than when treating adults
the major difference is that children do not recall early traumatic experiences as adults do
children display developmental experiences as they occur
Anna used the term "developmental lines" to describe the child's gradual transition from dependence on external controls to mastery of internal and external reality
these lines are attempts by the child to adapt to life's demands, whether those demands are situational, interpersonal, or personal
the lines describe normal development
181
Who was Erik Erikson?
extended Freud's developmental milestones into adulthood and even old age and changed them to focus on social development rather than sexual development
182
What are Erikson's psychosocial stages?
how an individual restores the task at each stage will determine how they live their life
183
What was Heinz Kohut's idea of self psychology?
emphasized a tension between a grandiose self and an idealized object
differed from Freud's view of motivation as rooted in drives
saw more severe psychological disturbances as treatable via psychoanalysis
184
Who was Melanie Klein?
drastically different than Anna Freud
pioneered idea we could use psychotherapy on children: personality is set much earlier
child experiences mother as source of both pleasure and discomfort
founder of object relations theory
pioneered the psychoanalysis of children
developed a distinct approach to understanding psychosexual development
185
What is the paranoid-schizoid position developed by Klein?
split objects into good and bad parts
distinction between these parts
usually splits the mother
186
What is the depressive position developed by Klein?
recognize that good and bad can be in the same being
they want a good relationship with mother
187
Who was Ronald Fairbairn?
treated combat veterans
pushed back against Freud: people are motivated by establishing relationships
a follower of Klein's theories, he challenged some aspects of Freud's approach
introduced the defense mechanism of "splitting": splitting ego into good and bad
188
Who was Donald Winnicott?
focused primarily on infant and childhood psychoanalysis
emphasized the role of the parent in the development of their child's sense of self
early emotional environment that parents provide sets up sense of self
true self: good authentic
bad self: not really who one is, built out of negativity
189
What is the "good enough" parent theory developed by Winnicott?
environment does not need to be perfect just have to be good enough for child to develop sense of self
190
Who was Joh Bowlby?
founder of attachment theory
separation anxiety
responsive caregiver must create a secure base so they feel comfortable to explore the world
forms a mental working model that colors every other connection formed later in life
attachment is not a trait, you can still improve it, it just colors the relationships
191
Who was Mary Ainsworth?
developed the "strange situation" technique for studying attachment styles
192
What was the "strange situation" developed by Ainsworth?
child goes into room with parent
stranger goes in
caregiver leaves
look at how the child acts when they leave then return
193
What is the secure attachment style developed by Ainsworth?
60%
when mother returns they will run to them, upset when parent leaves
will be confident that mother will return
normal play
194
What is the anxious-ambivalent attachment style developed by Ainsworth?
15%
hardest time
became extremely upset when mother left
try to seek comfort but reject attempts to soothe
difficult time playing
195
What is the avoidant/dismissive attachment style developed by Ainsworth?
20%
when parent left were calm
will contact stranger
ignore caregiver when they returned
would be listless when playing
196
What is the disorganized attachment style developed by Ainsworth?
5%
did not show clear pattern of behavior
associated with abuse
197
Who was Karen Horney?
medical doctor
when she pushed against Freud she was shunned so developed own institute
social environment was the issue; causes of illness were from social interactions
198
What was Horney's idea of social psychoanalysis?
two needs of children: biological needs met, need to feel safe
if parents met these needs they are secure, if needs aren't met or overmet leads to neurosis
moving towards people: if I give into others I'll be safe because I'll be liked
moving against people: if I have control no one will hurt me
moving away from people: if I don't get involved I can't get hurt
199
Who was Rudolf Allers?
founder of character psychology
based on Adler's approach
will to develop relationships; but people have inherent will of power
200
Who was Harry Stack Sullivan?
interpersonal psychology: in order to understand illness need to understand quality of social relationship
cultural forces cause illness
most painful experience is loneliness
201
Who was Erich Fromm?
humanistic psychoanalysis
escape from freedom: people flee from freedom of having to be responsible for their own life they will turn to powerful figures to tell them what to do
202
Who was Jacques Lacan?
Lacanian psychoanalysis
unconscious is structured like a language
gradually infant's realize they have a body --> forms basis of independent sense of self
the big other: the symbolic order
extremely influential outside of psychology
203
Why isn't psychoanalysis prevalent today?
psychology has maintained positivist stance
psychology has a hard exclusionary approach to interdisciplinary
