Topic 5 - Attempts at maintaining the peace, 1923–1935 Flashcards
1
Q
What happened in September 1923?
A
Britain rejected the draft disarmament treaty at the Assembly of the League of Nations
2
Q
What happened in April 1924?
A
Dawes Plan created
3
Q
What happened in October 1924?
A
Geneva Protocol given preliminary approval by LON
4
Q
What happened in March 1925?
A
New British gov refused to ratify Geneva Protocol
5
Q
What happened in August 1925?
A
Last French and Belgian troops withdrew from the Ruhr
6
Q
What happened in October 1925?
A
Locarno agreements signed
7
Q
What happened in August 1928?
A
Kellogg-Briand Pact signed by Germany, France and the USA
8
Q
What were attempts at disarmament and conciliation in international relations like in 1923?
A
- Following the short term resolution of border disputes and the imposition of the post-war settlements across Europe, the attention of the LON turned to the aim of disarmament - The issue of reparations also needed to be urgently addressed in response to the occupation of the Ruhr
9
Q
What happened in 1921?
A
- The USA had hosted the Washington Naval Conference to prevent a potential naval race in the Pacific - The LON also created the Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments
10
Q
What did the Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments do?
A
- Charged with the task of developing potential solutions to the disarmament question - Proposed several initiatives including a ban on the bombing of citizens, restricting the amount of artillery and tanks any nation could hold and prohibiting the use of chemical warfare - However, the delegates could not move past the difficult and contentious issue of how a country would be able to defend itself if it surrendered its weapons
11
Q
What had the LON hoped for the 1923 Treaty of Mutual Assistance?
A
That it would act as a severe deterrent against aggression
12
Q
What were the proposed terms of the 1923 Treaty of Mutual Assistance?
A
- In the event of a conflict, the LON would have a deadline of 4 days to decide which nation was the aggressor and which the victim - After these 4 days, the LON would send armed forces to defend the victim country - All members of the LON would be expected to contribute troops to the peacekeeping effort
13
Q
How was the 1923 Treaty of Mutual Assistance perceived?
A
- It was unpalatable to many nations, especially Britain - Many nations baulked at the idea of everyone contributing troops - The lack of clear guidelines on how the LON would judge victim from aggressor in such a short timespan was also discouraging
14
Q
Why did Britain put up the strongest resistance to the 1923 Treaty of Mutual Assistance?
A
They objected to the use of their troops in the manner proposed when they were needed to defend the Empire
15
Q
What was the 1923 Treaty of Mutual Assistance evidence of for the LON despite its never being enacted?
A
The drafting was the most determined effort to date of the LON to resolve many of the grey areas in its Covenant and processes related to peacekeeping
16
Q
How had views towards the post-war settlement changed as a result of the harsh treatment at the hand of the Ruhr occupiers?
A
- Germany was no longer viewed as the “Bogeyman” of Europe - This title passed to Communist Russia - Germany was therefore viewed by Britain and France as a potential bulwark against Russian aggression
17
Q
How did the British view Germany in relation to the post-war settlement?
A
Some economists and politicians feared that without an urgent review of Germany’s ability to pay reparations and service its war debts, an internal revolution would ensure it became a communist state on its own terms
18
Q
What state was France in after the Ruhr occupation?
A
- They were bitter about the relative failure of the Ruhr occupation, especially the lack of support from Britain - The invasion had provoked an economic downturn in France and, as the French economy was increasingly bolstered by American loans, it could not afford to court the hostility of its creditor by refusing to review the reparations question or the occupation
19
Q
What happened in November 1923?
A
Britain, France and the USA agreed to discuss reparations again
20
Q
How was the Dawes Plan discussed?
A
- A commission was created under the US economist Charles Dawes - The commission comprised two financial experts each from the USA, Britain, France, Belgium and Italy
21
Q
What was the aim of the Dawes Plan discussions?
A
They wanted to restructure reparations and support the German economy in such a way that would encourage German recovery so that it could afford to make payments to the Allies, who would have no need to take them by force as France and Belgium had done
22
Q
What were the terms of the 1924 Dawes Plan?
A
- German reparations were restructured - in the first year of payment, Germany would pay 1 bil marks, increasing to 2.5 in subsequent years - The Reichsbank would be restructured under Allied supervision - Germany would resume control of the Ruhr and French and Belgian troops would withdraw to allow Germany to regain key industrial resources, facilitating its recovery - Sanctions against Germany were only to be used if it deliberately failed to honour these commitments - Alongside the plan, the USA agreed to loan Germany 800 mil marks, and after the Plan’s approval, American investors rushed to invest in Germany’s recovery
23
Q
What did the USA do to ensure French acceptance of the 1924 Dawes Plan?
A
- Sent Parker Gilbert to Germany as “General Reparations Agent” to supervise payments - This was key to French acceptance of the deal as, despite the amount of reparations being lowered, the French were relieved to have international support to ensure that Germany did not default on its payments again
24
Q
How long was the Dawes Plan to last before being reviewed again?
A
Five years
25
What two new appointments were made in German politics in 1923?
- Wilhelm Marx was made Chancellor - Hjalmar Schact was made new Reichbank President
26
When was the new Rentenmark finally introduced?
November 1923
27
How did Schacht stabilise the German economy?
- New Rentenmark slowly brought inflation under control - British and American funding helped to make economic reforms, including a credit freeze to create stability - However, hyperinflation had already caused considerable damage to the Weimar gov's popularity - Political turbulence led President Ebert to pass Schacht's reforms by emergency decree under Article 48 of the constitution instead of having them passed by the Reichstag
28
Who was Edouard Herriot (1872-1957)?
- A left wing politician who became French PM in 1924 - He aimed to improve relations with other powers by agreeing to end the Ruhr occupation and accepting the Dawes Plan - He recognised the threat posed by Nazi Germany and was taken prisoner when Germany invaded France in 1940 - After his release, he continued in French politics
29
What happened in London in summer 1924?
As the Dawes Plan involved a review of the terms of the TOV, an international conference was convened
30
Which two delegations were of particular significance in the summer 1924 international conference?
- The USA, who hoped to act as "honest brokers" for Europe - Germany, which was treated as an equal for the first time since 1919
31
What is meant by the term "honest brokers"?
Arbitrators in a dispute or potential disputes who remain neutral and consider points made by all parties concerned
32
How did the French act towards the Germans in the summer 1924 international conference?
- Poincare's personal disapproval was no longer a factor as a result of the new PM - However, Herriot tried to secure secure compensation for France in the form of payment in return for their withdrawal from the Ruhr - He was persuaded, however, to agree to evacuate his troops within a year
33
What were the consequences of the 1924 Dawes Plan?
- Financed Germany's recovery until the Wall Street Crash 1929 - Germany's international standing also greatly improved as a result of the plan - Ramsay MacDonald, new British PM, was optimistic about the long term consequences of this development
34
What did Ramsay MacDonald say about the 1924 Dawes Plan?
"We are now offering the first really negotiated agreement since the war. This agreement may be regarded as the first Peace Treaty, because we sign it with a feeling that we have turned our backs on the terrible years of war and war mentality"
35
Who was Ramsay MacDonald (1866-1937)?
- Britain's first Labour PM, serving for 10 months in 1924 and again between 1929-1935 - He had opposed Britain's involvement in WW1 and favoured internationalism in world affairs - MacDonald led the Conservative-dominated National Gov formed in the midst of the Great Depression, which damaged his reputation amongst left-wing supporters
36
Why was the 1924 Dawes Plan a matter of concern for French politicians?
- They felt their position was isolated and vulnerable - The British and Americans had strongly discouraged another occupation to secure reparations, while the terms of the plan superseded the existed Reparations Commission in which France had greater influence
37
What did the 1924 Dawes Plan highlight?
- Highlighted a shift to a more conciliatory approach to Germany - However, it undermined the TOV in the process by revising its terms - The French had also learned it could not successfully enforce the TOV's terms without the explicit support of Britain
38
What was the problem with the LON's promise to "preserve" its members against acts of aggression?
The Covenant did not define what an act of aggression was
39
What made the LON's response slow and exposed to claims of partiality?
- The fact that, in the event of disputes, the LON had to make a decision on whether aggression had taken place before taking action - This situation helped to muddle the response to the Corfu incident
40
Which three leaders advocated a solution to the issues with the LON's responses to disputes in 1924?
- MacDonald (Britain) - Herriot (France) - Edvard Benes (Czech)
41
What was the term for the plan to redefine the phrase "act of aggression"?
- The "Protocol for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes" - It became known as the "Geneva Protocol" after the Swiss city in which it was negotiated
42
Why was the word "protocol" used to describe the plan to redefine the phrase "act of aggression"?
It was used deliberately to signal that it was not intended to contravene the Covenant of the LON, but was designed instead to support it
43
Why was the 1924 Geneva Protocol unsuccessful?
- The Protocol undermined the LON - International reaction was lukewarm - Highlighted the unpopularity of collective security - The ability of the LON to arbitrate was called into question - Britain did not ratify it
44
What were the proposed terms of the 1924 Geneva Protocol?
- In the event of a dispute, countries would submit their case to the LON and not go to war while the case was arbitrated by the Permanent Court of International Justice - An "aggressor" was defined as any power making war during the process of arbitration - The LON could then take action against the aggressor - All of the LON's members were required to pledge to attend a conference to limit armaments
45
Why did Britain refuse to fully ratify the 1924 Geneva Protocol?
- It was unpopular amongst the new Conservative gov following a general election in November 1924 - Britain remained wary of committing itself to any entangling treaty agreements - the Protocol could easily have committed the British to sending troops to intervene in a distant conflict via the LON
46
Who was Austen Chamberlain (1863-1937)?
- Half-brother of future PM Neville Chamberlain - Served as Foreign Secretary 1924-29 - He was a Francophile but he was determined to engineer revisions to the post-war settlement in Germany's favour in order to guarantee future European security
47
Who was Aristide Briand (1862-1932)?
- Served 11 terms as French PM before becoming FM 1925-32 - He had a more conciliatory style than his predecessors, accepting the need for France to cooperate with Germany - His idealism was encapsulated in his initiation of the Kellogg-Briand pact
48
What had the Dawes Plan done for international relations by 1925?
- Eased pressure of reparations by temporarily shelving them as a potential catalyst for disputes - A focus for statesmen was now the question of how to balance German desire for revisions to the TOV with French demands for security - The French in particular were pleased that a stronger international commitment had been made to ensure Germany would pay reparations and that France's own post-war reconstruction had significantly progressed - The Plan marked the first time Germany had been included in international negotiations since the war, thereby improving its international status
49
How had international relations changed in terms of foreign secretaries by 1925?
- They were now centre stage again in international affairs - immediately after the war, Presidents and PMs had tended to take the lead - From 1925, Austen Chamberlain (Britain), Gustav Stresemann (Germany) and Aristide Briand (France) represented the foreign interests of their respective nations - All three FS' were to receive Nobel Peace Prizes for their peacekeeping work
50
Why was disarmament seeming more achievable by 1925?
- There was a firm public support for it in many European countries and America - A more concerted effort was made to limit weapons stored
51
How did things stand with the Ruhr and the Rhineland by 1925?
- French and Belgian troops were due to withdraw from the Ruhr in August 1925 - Other Allied troops continued to occupy Rhineland cities, including Cologne - During the occupation crisis, the French had fostered hopes of Rhenish separatism, anticipating that Rhinelanders would grow tired of the disadvantages of being part of Germany and become the buffer state France wanted
52
What is meant by the term "Rhenish"?
Of the Rhineland
53
When and where were the Locarno negotiations held?
Locarno in Switzerland in 1925 - began in February
54
What did Stresemann propose to the allies at Locarno in 1925?
That Germany would voluntarily issue a guarantee of its current western border, thereby giving up its claims to Alsace, Lorraine, Eupen and Malmedy, which would relieve France and Belgium respectively
55
What was the advantage for Germany of the Locarno proposal 1925?
France could never legally invade the Ruhr or Rhineland again on the pretext of recovering its reparations and the prospect of a Rhenish state would disappear
56
How did the allies feel about the initial proposal at Locarno in 1925?
- Britain enthusiastic - France pointed out that Germany should acknowledge its eastern borders too - Italy hoped to secure a guarantee of Germany's southern border to protect Austria
57
Why was there far more at stake at Locarno than the confirmation of existing borders?
By making key compromises with its former enemies, Germany expected to finally become a member of the LON, thereby confirming its acceptance as an equal in world affairs
58
What happened after months of negotiations in Locarno in 1925?
A series of agreements, which became known as the Locarno Treaties, were initialled in October by Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Belgium and signed in full in December after they had been discussed by the signatories' govs
59
What were the terms of the December 1925 Locarno Pact?
- Treaty of Mutual Guarantee established, guaranteeing the borders of Germany, France and Belgium to Germany's west, and guaranteed the demilitarisation of Rhineland - Germany, France and Belgium agreed not to go to war against each other unless the terms of the Mutual Guarantee were broken, or unless the LON called for action against one of them as an aggressor - the guarantors would act immediately without the LON in the event of "flagrant" abuse of these terms - Germany agreed 4 separate treaties, one each with France, Belgium, Czechoslovakia and Poland to resolve any disputes between them peacefully
60
What happened to Germany in September 1926?
They duly took their place on the Permanent Council of the LON
61
Why was Germany's role in the Locarno negotiations not a simple matter?
The allies grew frustrated at Stresemann's attempts to secure an even better deal for Germany
62
What demands did Germany try to achieve at Locarno?
- Tried to make the Allies repudiate the war guilt clause in TOV as a condition of its attendance at Locarno, but this request was ignored and the German delegation still attended - Towards the end of the negotiations, Stresemann made more demands, including a faster evacuation of Allied troops from the Rhineland and an earlier Saar plebiscite - Though the British, French and Belgians promised to consider these proposals, Germany's suggestion that it should police its own disarmament rather than have Allied supervision infuriated Chamberlain and the plans were quickly dropped
63
How did Britain react to the Locarno Pact 1925?
- Franco-German detente increased European security, much to the approval of the Foreign Office, and Chamberlain was hailed as a hero of the peace - Britain contrived to avoid some of the entanglements it feared in the Geneva Protocol - it had refused to commit itself to possible border disputes in Eastern Europe, whilst possible intervention required on Germany's Western border would be managed by the LON
64
How did France react to the 1925 Locarno Pact?
- French fears of isolation following the Dawes Plan were alleviated as Britain and other powers had agreed to defend France in the event of a German invasion - The French did not achieve the guarantee of Germany's eastern borders - France's agreements with Poland and Czechoslovakia were recognised at Locarno but made more difficult to enforce without France violating Germany's border itself - France's acceptance of Locarno highlighted the new attitude towards Germany - instead of acting unilaterally to control and punish Germany, the French, the French now pursued the conclusion of international agreements which would make German adherence to their terms an international concern
65
What is meant by the term "unilateral"?
The action of one country alone - bilateral action would involve two countries
66
How did Germany react to the 1925 Locarno Pact?
- Despite the gains made by Stresemann, the reaction in Germany was hardly enthusiastic - The FM tried to convince the gov that it had little choice but to re-affirm its western border given its limited army, but the largest nationalist party, the DNVP, stormed out of the Reichstag in protest
67
What happened on 27th November 1925?
The Reichstag passed the Locarno agreements by 292 votes to 174
68
Why was Belgium disappointed with the 1925 Locarno Pact?
They remained dependent on France for their security
69
Why was Italy disappointed with the 1925 Locarno Pact?
It had secured no gains for itself despite its presence at the negotiations
70
How did Poland and Czechoslovakia react to the 1925 Locarno Pact?
They were disappointed as there were few guarantees of security for them, and so both looked to France for support against future German aggression. However, France now had less freedom of action
71
How did Eastern Europe and the USSR react to the 1925 Locarno Pact?
- The reaction was lukewarm as little was settled for the eastern nations - Joseph Stalin also viewed Locarno as having hidden anti-Soviet agenda
72
What did the USSR do in 1922?
Pursued a separate agreement to Locarno with Germany and signed the Treaty of Rapallo
73
What happened in April 1926?
The USSR and Germany signed the Neutrality and Non-Aggression Pact
74
What were the terms of the 1926 Neutrality and Non-Aggression Pact?
- Germany and the USSR would remain neutral if either was attacked by a third power - Germany pledged not to join an imagined anti-Soviet plot
75
Who was Joseph Stalin (1879-1953)?
- The son of a Georgian cobbler - Took the name "Stalin" (meaning "man of steel") after being frequently arrested and exiled to Serbia in the last years of the Tsarist regime - Became editor of Pravada (communist newspaper) in 1917 - Asserted himself as leader of the USSR after Lenin's death - As a deeply paranoid individual, he launched several "purges" of "disloyal" Russians, including military staff, which weakened the USSR's fighting strength - Stalin foresaw war with the West and launched programmes of industrialisation and militarisation - Died in 1953 after helping to start the Cold War with the USA
76
What were relations between Germany and the USSR like in the 1920s?
- Relations were close - Both had the common experience of not having been included in the post-war peace negotiations and having lost some of their territory to the newly independent Poland - Germany never accepted its new borders in Eastern Europe, and Poland viewed the agreements between Germany and the USSR as a real threat to its security - The Soviet Union also gained the continued benefit of trade agreements with Germany as well as help to modernise its industry
77
What was the 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact?
- The new mood of conciliation in IR ("spirit of Locarno") was extended with the conclusion of this pact - 62 nations pledged to never go to war again
78
Who created the 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact and why?
- First mooted by Briand (French) to the US Secretary of State, Kellogg, as a peace pledge between France and the USA - Despite America's declared isolationism, there was a growing demand among its people for the "outlawry" of war, and many politicians looked for ways to ensure that war would never break out again
79
Which two countries invited to sign the 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact declined?
Brazil and Argentina
80
How can we explain the almost unanimous acceptance of the 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact?
The terms of the pact were deliberately worded in a way that ensured no existing treaties or agreements, including the LON, were undermined, therefore the signatories could still go to war as long as they had already made a treaty stipulating military support or were a part of the LON
81
What was a positive of the 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact?
It is viewed as the high point of post-war conciliation
82
What were the weaknesses of the 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact?
- The high ideal of the agreement was watered down by thigh ideal of the agreement was watered down by the undermining of existing military treaties - No sanctions were specified for breaking the pact, therefore it was rendered practically pointless
83
Who signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact on 27th August 1928?
USA, Germany and France
84
Who signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact in 1929?
Other nations, including Britain and Italy
85
What were the 1930s characterised by despite the cautious optimism of the Locarno pacts and reparations plans in the 1920s?
A shift away from internationalism and towards national, isolationist economic policies as every country struggled to cope with the impact of the Great Depression
86
How was the League of Nations faring in the 1930s?
- Continued with its goals of disarmament and resolving the reparations issue - However, the consequences of the global downturn made its problems even more intractable
87
What is meant by the term "downturn"?
A decrease in economic activity; the Great Depression was an extreme, long-term example
88
What happened as the seriousness and long-term nature of the economic crisis became more apparent?
The role of the USA as the leading creditor nation became increasingly important in Europe
89
What was one of the earliest casualties of the Depression?
The Young Plan
90
What was the Young Plan?
- Succeeded the Dawes Plan of 1924 - Had a 5 year term - Named after American lawyer Owen D Young - Reduced Germany's final repayment sum and linked British and French debts to reparation amounts - Germany would complete its payments by 1988 - The plan committed the USA to continued economic involvement in Europe despite its official policy of isolationism
91
When was the Young Plan created?
1929
92
What was one of the major factors behind the economic crisis of the Great Depression?
A loss of confidence in the American economy
93
What was the result of the stock market boom of the 1920s?
Increased investment in shares occurred, artificially raising the value of US companies and a rise in the use of credit
94
What happened when share prices plummeted during the Wall Street Crash of 1929?
- Investors and banks lost billions of dollars - $8 billion was wiped off the price of shares on 29th October 1929 alone
95
What caused banks to fail?
- Ordinary people rushed to withdraw their savings - 659 banks failed in 1929 - 1352 banks failed in 1930 - 2294 banks failed in 1931 - The Great Depression set in as US companies closed down or limited their production, and unemployment in the USA soared
96
What caused the economic crisis in America to quickly spread to the rest of the world?
- US investors had lent $6 billion abroad 1924-28 - This was in particular to its former wartime allies, Britain and France - However, they also lent money to Germany in conjunction with the 1924 Dawes Plan - As American banks were struggling (with many on the brink of collapse), most of these loans were recalled, but debtor nations were unable to pay
97
What did the increase in protectionism show?
That governments were abandoning international cooperation in order to secure their own interests
98
What had the USA done protectionism wise in the early 1920s?
They had introduced the Emergency Tariff and the Fordney-McCumber Tariff to protect its domestic markets from foreign competition
99
What did the USA do protectionism wise in 1930?
Imposed the Smoot-Hawley Tariff, which extended the protective tariff to over 20,000 imported goods
100
What did other nations do in response to the USA's protective tariffs?
- They introduced retaliatory tariffs - In response to the Depression, these tariffs increased in number and severity
101
What did Britain do protectionism wise as a result of the Depression?
Turned to a strategy first mooted at the end of the 19th century - favourable trade agreements within the Empire and between its colonies and dominions (increasingly known as the Commonwealth)
102
What is meant by the term "dominions"?
Countries united by their common allegiance to the British Crown but free to run their own domestic and foreign affairs; together they comprised the British Commonwealth
103
What did the 1932 Import Duties Act do?
- Ended the British policy of free trade - Imposed a 10% tariff on imported goods except those from India, South Rhodesia and the Dominions - Prompted France to soon follow suit with a similar arrangement with its own colonies
104
What did Britain do regarding the gold standard during the Great Depression?
- In 1925 it had been restored in Britain by Winston Churchill (then Chancellor) after having being suspended during WW1 - Britain was, however, the first leading economy to remove itself from the gold standard as a result of the Great Depression in the wake of falling prices and the slump in world trade - In September 1931, they made it clear this would be a long term decision despite many attempts by Americans and the French to persuade Britain to restore it
105
How did abandoning the gold standard during the Great Depression benefit Britain?
It gave Britain more freedom to stimulate its own economy
106
How did Britain's abandonment of the gold standard affect America?
- America saw negative effects - The value of the pound decreased compared to the US dollar which helped British industry by making US imports more expensive and their own exports cheaper
107
Which countries followed Britain's example in abandoning the gold standard within a month?
Denmark, Sweden and Canada
108
What were the two blocs that emerged amongst the leading world economies?
- Those that remained on the gold standard - Those whose currencies were linked to the value of the sterling (the British pound), aka "sterling bloc nations"
109
Which countries remained on the gold standard?
France, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Poland and Italy
110
Which countries became "sterling bloc nations"?
The Commonwealth, Norway, Sweden and Denmark
111
What happened on 27th July 1933?
The British Commonwealth Declaration was signed
112
What did the 1933 British Commonwealth Declaration do?
Aimed to raise prices, plan an eventual return to the gold standard and to ensure the stabilisation of exchange rates within the sterling bloc
113
What was the gold standard?
- Linked a currency's exchange rate to a specified amount of gold - A "quality mark" for an economy - Countries often risked coming off it in the event of a depression as it allowed them to increase their supply of money and encourage exports
114
What was an advantage of the gold standard?
Countries' currencies would remain stable, making them favourable trading partners as their exchange rate was tied to a steady measure
115
What was a disadvantage of the gold standard?
It restricted the freedom of individual economies
116
How did the Great Depression impact German politics?
- The Weimar gov were unable to resolve the catastrophic effects of the economic crisis - As unemployment increased, support for the moderate ruling parties and democracy itself sharply declined - Popularity of the KPD (German Communist Party) and the Nazi Party soared
117
Why did the popularity of the Nazis soar in the aftermath of the Great Depression?
- Many previously moderate Germans supported the Nazis due to their fear of communism - Others were impressed by the impression of order and stability the Nazis offered with Hitler as a strong, decisive leader and the military-style uniforms and marches of the Brownshirts - Hitler also promised to provide jobs and support small business owners - a return to economic stability and an end to unemployment
118
What was Nazism?
- Short for "National Socialism" - A political ideology based on fascism - Advocated resurgence of Germany as a world power in defiance of post-war settlement, blaming German defeat on enemies like communists and Jews, urging their removal from public life - Believed that the German race (Aryans) were biologically superior to others, especially Slavs - Claimed to embrace socialism but once in power, many socialist aspects of early programme were quietly forgotten
119
Describe the rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party
- In November 1923 Hitler and his supporters attempted a march through Munich demanding the overthrow of the gov - After an extremely lenient prison sentence, Hitler decided to make his bid for power through election success - Although his time in prison allowed Hitler to write about his ideology and FP aims in Mein Kampf, by the time he was released, the economy had recovered and the gov's popularity had increased - It was only a short term recovery, however, as the political landscape of Germany changed drastically in 1929 after the Wall Street Crash
120
Who was Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)?
- Joined fledgling German Workers' Party in 1919, becoming its leader in 1921 - Partly inspired by Italian fascism and first hoped to seize power in the failed 1923 Munich Putsch, then committing the renamed Nazi Party to electoral success - Became Chancellor in 1933 and Fuhrer in 1934 - Committed suicide in April 1945 when Germany's defeat in WW2 became inevitable
121
What did the increasing popularity of right-wing ideas make Weimar politicians do?
Made them more assertive in their dealings with other nations, as highlighted by their behaviour in the early stages of the Lausanne and World Disarmament Conferences
122
What is a moratorium?
A temporary suspension of debt repayment grants with the agreement of the creditor
123
What happened in October 1930?
- Germany asked US President Herbert Hoover to consider a moratorium on reparations due to the impact of the Depression on the German economy, a request it was entitled to make under the TOV - The proposal had the support of Wall Street investors who were concerned about Germany's ability to honour loan repayments without it
124
How did President Hoover react to the request for a moratorium on reparations?
- He agreed to it - However, it was only to be a short term measure and only if the savings of Germany were not used for armaments - It was eventually agreed that the money would be invested in railways
125
When did the moratorium on reparations begin?
June 1931 for a year long period in the ambitious hope that the impact of the Depression in Europe would be short lived
126
How did the French react to the moratorium on reparations?
They criticised it harshly, viewing it as yet another Anglo-American agreement to help Germany at France's expense
127
What was clear by summer 1932?
That Hoover's expectation of European recovery within a year of the start of the moratorium was far too optimistic, chiming in with his promise to the American public that prosperity was "just around the corner"
128
What happened in June 1932?
A conference was convened in Lausanne (Switzerland) to resolve the ongoing issue of reparations
129
Who attended the Lausanne Conference in June 1932?
- Britain - France - Germany - Belgium - Italy
130
Who made their opposing goals clear from the outset of the 1932 Lausanne Conference?
The German and French delegates (Chancellor von Papen and PM Edouard Herriot)
131
Who was Franz von Papen (1879-1969)?
- A right wing German statesman and diplomat who began his career as a professional soldier - Appointed Chancellor in June 1932 at a time of increasing political turbulence in Germany - Resigned in November to be replaced by Kurt von Schleicher - However, in January 1933 Papen and Schleicher recommended to Hindenburg that Hitler be appointed Chancellor due to Schleicher's inability to control the Reichstag - Papen was swiftly marginalised by the Nazis
132
What were Papen and Herriot's opposing views on reparations?
- Papen claimed that reparations were dangerous and unrealistic - Herriot continued the previous French argument that Germany could afford them but repeatedly chose not to
133
What limited the success of the Lausanne Conference 1932?
- Progress was made - However, like Hoover, British PM Ramsay MacDonald was in favour of linking the abandonment of reparations with the process of disarmament - As the World Disarmament Conference was already underway in Geneva (just over 60km away), the Lausanne Conference itself was somewhat overshadowed by the objective of limiting armaments
134
What was agreed at the 1932 Lausanne Conference?
- In contrast to the terms of the Young Plan, it was agreed that reparations would end - Germany would pay a final 3000 million Marks as a lump sum (just 10% of the outstanding debt) to the Bank of International Settlements (established in 1930)
135
Why was the Lausanne Protocol not ratified?
All creditor nations agreed not to proceed until they had decided how to compensate the USA for remaining war debts
136
What was the "gentleman's agreement"?
Ultimately it amounted to the USA's debtors agreeing to cancel their own debts
137
Who was the "gentleman's agreement" of particular importance to?
Britain and France, however, its secret details were leaked to Washington, which took a dim view of the arrangement
138
How did the delegates at Lausanne hope to soothe American objections to the "gentleman's agreement"?
By organising a world conference to address the economic crisis and restore international cooperation, which would meet in London in 1933
139
Why did the Lausanne Protocol receive a frosty reception from France?
- Were not happy with the cancellation - The National Assembly rejected the proposal by the gov to pay its own final lump sum to America
140
What were the results of the 1932 Lausanne Conference?
- The agreements finally cancelled out the economic terms of the TOV - Terms also effectively cancelled out those of the Young Plan - France's role in the Lausanne Protocol distanced it further from the USA - The final payment scheduled to be made by Germany never materialised - Abandonment of reparations was very popular in USA and most of Europe but did little to help the beleaguered Weimar gov
141
How did the Nazis use the results of the Lausanne Conference 1932 for their own agenda?
- Despite the success of its politicians in ensuring another key aspect of the TOV was abolished, the Nazis used the fact it still had some debts and that it had not secured the right to re-arm to the level of other nations as propaganda - The proportion of seats in the Reichstag had doubled by the end of the conference
142
When was the London Conference?
12th June - 27th July 1933
143
How many nations were represented at the London Conference 1933?
66
144
What were the aims of the London Conference 1933?
- Restore economic confidence and raise prices - Encourage more economies back to the gold standard - Halt the spread of protectionism - Increase world trade
145
Which three major powers now had new leadership and who were their new leaders?
- GERMANY - Hitler as Chancellor in Jan 1933 - FRANCE - Edouard Daladier as PM in Jan 1933 - USA - Franklin Roosevelt - March 1933
146
How was Britain being led at this time?
- Ramsay MacDonald was still PM - However, it was a coalition, the National Government - This was because Conservatives like Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain were gaining more influence
147
Who was Franklin Roosevelt (1882-1945)?
- A Democrat - Became US President in a landslide victory against Republican Herbert Hoover - Promised Americans a "New Deal" to solve the Depression and introduced several policies to reduce its domestic and international consequences - Roosevelt's plans were not completely successful, but his popularity saw him re-elected 3 times - He died in 1945 after taking America into WW2
148
Why was there disagreement between France and Britain at the London Conference 1933?
- France was desperate for Britain to return to the Gold Standard and blamed the slump in world trade on Britain's departure - Britain's main concern, meanwhile, was the abolition of war debt
149
What was the impact of cancelling war debt at the London Conference 1933?
- It set the USA against its European debtors - Although the impact of the Depression was felt globally, America remained one of the worst affected whilst the British economy and that of others in the "sterling bloc" has improved relatively quickly
150
What was another key proposal made at the London Conference 1933?
It was about the stabilisation of currencies
151
What were Roosevelt's views towards the proposal about stabilisation of currencies?
- He had given indication of his views through his cautious moves to take the USA off the gold standard - After British and American bankers floated the idea of fixing the value of the US dollar at a low rate, further steps were taken towards currency stabilisation
152
However, what did Roosevelt do on 3rd July 1933?
- He sent the conference a "bombshell message" repudiating the attempts at stabilisation and accusing the delegates of bad faith - His mind changed several times after becoming President, but Roosevelt finally made it clear that he would not accept any stabilisation proposal which limited America's freedom to recover from the depression in this message
153
What was the result of Roosevelt's refusal of the stabilisation proposal?
- The conference was all but over without his approval - The delegates tried to continue their discussions, but only to keep up appearances - No agreements were made on protectionism or industrial recovery
154
How has Zara Steiner contradicted the idea of the failure of the London Conference 1933 being Roosevelt's fault?
She argues that neither Britain nor France were ready for an international solution to the Depression
155
What happened at the Imperial Economic Conference in Ottawa in summer 1932 to support Steiner's view?
- The British made it clear they had no intention of returning to the gold standard or abandoning their tariff arrangements with the Commonwealth - France continued to pursue currency stabilisation
156
What was shown by the failure of the London Conference 1933?
- Once again, the leading world powers had chosen to pursue their own national interests ahead of international cooperation - The last international effort to resolve the consequences of the Depression had ended in failure, a point duly noted by nationalist govs like Hitler's Germany, which went on to adopt a policy of autarky, and Hirohito's Japan, which had already turned to aggression and empire-building in an effort to improve its own economic circumstances
157
What is meant by the term "autarky"?
Economic self-sufficiency
158
What had ensured that the LON principle of disarmament had not been achieved before 1932?
- Failure of Lausanne and London conferences hardly provided solid ground for optimism or cooperation - Actions of Japan in Manchuria from 1931 clouded the issue of disarmament and split opinion - The enthusiasm for limiting weapons amongst govs was weak despite public pressure for it
159
When was the World Disarmament Conference?
1932-34
160
What gave Germany huge moral bargaining power at the World Disarmament Conference 1932-34?
- They had been forced to disarm to the levels prescribed by the TOV - Now they could accuse other powers of hypocrisy if levels of disarmament were not made equal
161
How did the Depression help the cause for disarmament?
Its impact ensured that countries were seeking national, isolated solutions to problems by 1932
162
What happened on 2nd February 1932?
- 59 states were represented at Geneva, including all the major powers - Support for the meeting from the general public was strong and widespread - prayers were said for its success and public meetings held
163
What had happened on 1st November 1931?
The LON members had agreed to a truce on armaments and a pledge was made to freeze the production of weapons while the disarmament conference was in progress
164
What was agreed in July 1932 at the World Disarmament Conference?
Resolutions were created to place limits on the use of artillery and tanks and to ban the bombing of civilians and the use of chemicals in warfare
165
What is meant by the term "resolutions"?
In international relations, a formal commitment to achieving an objective
166
What was the problem with the July 1932 resolutions?
- They contained very little detail on how these objectives would be secured - For instance, despite the popularity of the resolution prohibiting the bombing of civilian populations, nations were reluctant to give up the right to build planes with the capacity to drop bombs
167
How was rearmament occurring in Germany despite the TOV restrictions?
- Weimar gov started secret rearmament in 1928 with a 5 year plan to extend the army, build tanks and build aircraft - In July 1932, German delegates in Geneva introduced proposals for all countries to disarm to the levels it had been forced to under the TOV - When this was rejected, Germany left the conference - It was not until Jan 1933 when "equality of armaments" was accepted that Germany returned to negotiate - Hitler began to rearm to a far more ambitious scale upon becoming Chancellor on 30th Jan 1933 - Withdrew from conference in October 1933, then from the LON - Conference ended in 1934
168
What was the Depression's overall impact on international relations?
- Led to the end of the dream for global disarmament - Financial terms of the TOV significantly watered down - Tariff war and its impact on world trade damaged prospects for greater international cooperation - Increasing tendency of countries to prioritise their own domestic recovery was to have significant consequences in the 1930s
169
What happened in October 1922?
Mussolini becomes PM of Italy
170
What happened on 25th December 1926?
Accession of Emperor Hirohito in Japan
171
What happened on 18th September 1931?
Japanese owned railway in Manchuria bombed
172
What happened on 30th January 1933?
Hitler becomes German Chancellor
173
What happened in July 1933?
Four Power Pact agreed
174
What happened in July 1934?
Italy prevents Anschluss
175
What happened in April 1935?
Stresa conference
176
The ambitions of which three powers significantly challenged the post-war balance of power in the 1930s and why?
- Italy, Japan and Germany - Though Mussolini cooperated with the democracies in the 1920s and even up to 1935 with the Stresa Pact, the expansionist aims of Hitler and the Japanese provided a strong catalyst for significant changes in the global balance of power
177
How had the new realities of the global economic situation in the aftermath of the Depression changed International Relations?
- Encouraged the revision of key terms in the post-war peace settlements - Western democracies continued to conduct IR as they had in the 1920s and began to accept the grievances of the defeated powers
178
What were the ambitions of Italy overall?
- Aspired to be Great Power status before and after WW1 - However, it was not treated as an equal by Britain and France - The importance of Italy to European peace, however, grew in response to the growing threat of both Nazi Germany and the communist USSR, giving Italy's dictator, Mussolini, considerable leverage in the 1920s and 30s
179
What is meant by the term "leverage"?
A strong negotiating position; a person who has good leverage is able to influence others
180
How had the First World War impacted Italy?
- Had intervened on the side of the Allies but found itself heavily defeated by Austria in the Battle of Caparetto in 1917 - 1918 armistice was a relief to Italy, but Mussolini referred to it as a "mutilated victory" when it became clear that the Treaty of London 1915 promises would not all be fulfilled
181
What was the mood in Italy like as a result of its treatment post-war?
- It was one of anger and fear of revolution - Strikes, looting, demonstrations and riots were commonplace - In 1919 Mussolini and other disillusioned former soldiers formed a new movement, the Fasci di Combattimento, later shortened to fascism
182
What happened on 29th October 1922?
In response to growing support for the Italian fascist movement, King Victor Emmanuel invited Mussolini to form a government. Mussolini had transformed Italy into a one-party state
183
Who was Victor Emmanuel III (1869-1947)?
- King of Italy from 1900 - As Mussolini turned Italy into a dictatorship, Victor Emmanuel became little more than a figurehead - By 1943, Italy was facing defeat in WW2 and he had Mussolini arrested - He abdicated in favour of his son in 1946 but the Italians voted to become a republic instead - Died in exile as the last King of Italy
184
What were Mussolini's foreign policy aims?
- Hoped to gain greater control over Italy's spheres of influence in the Balkans and around the Mediterranean - Also involved claiming the "unredeemed" territory around the Adriatic which was promised to Italy in 1915 but not granted under the 1919 treaties
185
What have historians said about Mussolini's foreign policy aims?
- Some historians have argued that Mussolini's increasingly aggressive policies were meant to serve as a distraction from domestic problems - More recently, historians have concluded that he was in fact responding to circumstances as they arose, such as the impact of the Great Depression and the growing strength of Nazi Germany - The nature and consistency of Italy's FP aims have been contested, but it is unlikely that he had to stick to a pre-defined set of objectives, unlike Hitler
186
What did the fascist commitment to strength and violence demand?
- A foreign policy with concurrent values - Mussolini himself declared "it is a crime not to be strong", which explains Italy's involvement in Libya from 1922 onwards
187
What caused Italy to get involved on Libya?
- Libya had been an Italian colony since 1912 - However, revolts by the native population were frequent and often severe, and the previous liberal gov had been unable to keep the area under control
188
How did Italy begin to regain control over Libya under Mussolini's control?
- Italian troops began to use a more decisive and aggressive course of action towards Libya - However, guerrilla troops stopped Italy being able to claim full power over Libya
189
What did Mussolini do in Libya in 1928?
- Mussolini escalated his army's involvement and Libyans were subjected to barbaric treatment - This included the rounding up of civilians into concentration camps, the desecration of mosques and the use of chemical weapons
190
What did the Italian governor of Libya do in January 1932?
Declared the "Pacification of Libya" complete
191
When was the Four Power Pact signed?
July 1933
192
Who was the Four Power Pact signed between?
Britain, France, Italy and Germany
193
Why was Hitler included in the signing of the Four Power Pact in 1933?
At this stage, Hitler was still trying to gain approval as a statesman by cooperating with his foreign counterparts while attempting to keep his rearmament plans secret
194
What did the 1933 Four Power Pact state?
The powers promised they would keep the peace for 10 years
195
Who broke the Four Power Pact immediately and how?
- Germany - They withdrew from the Disarmament Conference in 1933 and publicly announced their rearmament programme 16th March 1933
196
What was the outcome of the 1933 Four Power Pact?
- It was never ratified - However, it alienated the USSR, which was still being excluded from major agreements 15 years after the Bolshevik Revolution
197
When were the Rome Agreements?
January 1935
198
What was agreed in the 1935 Rome Agreements?
Italy and France agreed to respect each other's European and colonial borders, a move championed by the pro-Italian French FM, Pierre Laval
199
When was Germany's first attempt to take over Austria?
1934
200
Why did Germany's first attempt to take over Austria in 1934 alarm Mussolini?
- Italy shared a border with Austria - He was also concerned that the Italian sphere of influence around the Balkans was being threatened
201
When was the Stresa Conference?
April 1935
202
What was agreed as a part of the "Stresa Front" in 1935?
Britain, Italy and France agreed to oppose "by all practical means, any unilateral repudiation of treaties, which may endanger the peace of Europe"
203
What was the outcome of the Stresa Conference 1935?
While the paperwork did little to discourage Hitler, Mussolini felt assured that Britain and France would not intervene in his planned invasion of Abyssinia
204
How was Japan ruled?
- By an Emperor, a hereditary title which bestowed upon the incumbent huge power and the status of arahitogami - This made him a God to the people according to the teachings of the State Shinto religion founded in 1868
205
Who was Emperor Hirohito (1901-1989)?
- Came to the Japanese throne in 1926 - Head of both gov and army - Meiji Constitution of 1889 gave Japanese Emperors great power, but Hirohito rarely opposed the policies of his ministers and military chiefs - Historians are divided over his true role in Japan's FP in the 1930s and 40s - He was forced to relinquish much of his power after 1945 but remained Emperor until his death
206
What was the Japanese political system like?
- Established in 1889 under the Meiji Constitution - Comprised two parliamentary houses along similar lines to European govs - Although constitution contained some liberal elements and the Emperor did not have absolute power, he appointed PMs and had the power to dissolve the lower house - He was also able to allow his inner circle of advisers to wield considerable influence
207
Describe Hirohito's enthronement in 1928
- Provided a sharp contrast between the lavish court ceremony and the grinding poverty of the Japanese countryside - The mood was, however, patriotic, and about to be exploited by nationalists who were becoming increasingly influential
208
How did Japanese nationalism have clear expansionist aims?
- In reflection of its extremely hierarchical society, Japanese school children were taught they were the superior race and racist attitudes towards the Chinese were encouraged - There was also to be a backlash against Westernisation, sparking a particular hatred towards the USA - This master race ideology became particularly prevalent in the army, which by the late 1920s enjoyed a strong influence on gov policy
209
How was Japan affected by the Depression?
- It was hit very hard - With its population growing by 1mil p/y, the gov soon found itself unable to feed its people - Even subsistence farmers struggled to feed their families - As a small nation with scarce natural resources, it relied on imports and relied on exports to maintain a balance of trade - Rice had to be imported from 1929 to prevent starvation and Japan's main export, silk, suffered a collapse in prices - To make matters worse, tariffs were imposed by America and much of Europe, meaning Japan's exports sank to their lowest ever level, dropping by 40% between 1929-30
210
What exacerbated the Japanese desire for expansionism?
Gov ministers hoped to solve Japan's problems with emigration, but this failed and the prospect of expansion became a popular alternative
211
What were the expansionist aims of Japan?
To colonise China, exploit its natural resources and relieve the overcrowding in Japan
212
What was Japan's excuse for the invasion of China?
- It needed a stable gov - Its Emperor had been overthrown in 1911 and much of China was under the volatile control of local warlords - Japanese already in a strong position in Manchuria - 70% of Japanese immigrants lived there and 35% of Chinese foreign investment was provided by the Japanese, mostly in Manchuria - This included the South Manchurian Railway which had helped to spread Japanese political and economic influence in the region
213
How had Japan's relations with other powers in the 1930s provided good reason for expansion into China?
- Victory in Russo-Japanese war promoted it to Great Power status, ended rivalry with Russia in the Far East and allowed Japan to annex Korea, increasing its sphere of influence - After the Bolshevik Revolution, Japan was appreciated by the West as an ally against Communism
214
What did the Washington Naval Treaty 1921-22 do?
Restricted Japanese naval development to 70% of Britain and America's
215
What did the London Naval Treaty 1930 do?
Helped to widen the existing division between the civilian and military authorities in Japan as the latter believed that gov ministers had not done enough to achieve equality of naval armaments with the West
216
What were the nationalist government discussing and what was the outcome?
There was serious talk of a coup d'etat, however it was decided instead to force the gov's hand in relation to the Manchurian project
217
What were Hitler's overarching intentions as German Chancellor?
He made no secret of his aims to dismantle democracy in Germany and abandon their adherence to the post-war settlement
218
What happened on 30th June 1934?
Hitler declared himself Fuhrer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor) and made the army swear a personal oath of allegiance to him
219
What is meant by the term "Fuhrer"?
German for "leader" - in Nazi ideology it took on the connotation of undisputed dictator
220
What did Hitler do in 1933?
Rapidly expanded the rearmament programme begun in 1928 by the Weimar gov but did not formally withdraw Germany from the World Disarmament Conference until October
221
What did Hitler do in March 1935?
Made Germany's rearmament public with a rally
222
What did Mussolini fear from an aggressive Germany?
- Hitler had made his aim of achieving Anschluss with Austria clear, and German expansion into Austria would potentially threaten Italy's north-east border - If Germany continued to expand, Italy's sphere of influence in the Balkans would be endangered
223
What did Mussolini do in 1934 after realising the first fear of Hitler's chancellorship?
He encouraged Engelbert Dollfuss, the fascist but anti-Nazi Chancellor of Austria, to establish an authoritarian regime with Italy's support
224
What happened on 25th July 1934?
Austrian Nazis murdered Dollfuss in an attempted coup d'etat in response to Mussolini's support of him establishing an authoritarian regime in Austria
225
How did Mussolini react to the murder of Dollfuss in 1934?
- He was outraged - He mobilised his troops on the Italo-Austrian border at the Brenner Pass to dissuade Germany from taking Austria by force
226
How did Hitler react to Mussolini mobilising troops on the Italo-Austrian border?
He backed down, but would attempt an Anschluss again in 1938 with very different results
227
When were the Rome Agreements signed?
January 1935
228
Who were the Rome Agreements 1935 signed between?
Italy and France
229
What were the Rome Agreements 1935?
Italy and France agreed to respect each other's European and colonial borders
230
What was Mussolini's aim in signing the Rome Agreements and joining the Stresa front with Britain and France?
He hoped to secure the support of Italy's former allies in the event of German aggression threatening its interests
231
What did Italy do in 1936 to contradict this aim, however?
Italy had made two agreements with Hitler which brought the two fascist powers closer together
232
What was collective security?
- The underlying principle of the LON - The idea that states should cooperate and support each other if one was threatened by another power - The security of each country was therefore, in theory, far stronger than if they acted alone
233
Why did the pursuit of collective security start to be challenged after its success in the 1920s?
- It was significantly challenged by the changing balance of power brought about by the new ambitions of Germany, Italy and Japan - Stanley Baldwin June 1936 - "Collective security failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions" - The principle of collective security was under threat due to the practicalities of enforcing it
234
What was Japan's aim in response to their internal problems?
Influential nationalists in the Japanese army were determined to colonise China
235
What was the Kwantung army?
The largest and most influential military group of the Japanese army - had an increasingly strong influence over civilian gov in the 1930s and was stationed in Manchuria in 1931
236
Why was Manchuria important to Japan?
Japan had extensive political and economic influence here
237
What happened on 18th September 1931?
- Kwantung officers exploded a bomb on the Japanese-owned South Manchurian Railway and blamed it on local Chinese troops - Within hours, the town of Mukden had been taken over by Japanese forces, and four days later, the Kwantung troops occupied towns within a 200 mile radius of Mukden
238
What happened on 21st September 1931?
- The Chinese appealed to the LON under Article 11 of the Covenant - This stated that any war or threat of war necessitated the emergency meeting of the Council, summoned by the Secretary General
239
What did the LON do in response to China's appeal for help?
Ordered the Japanese to withdraw by the 16th November 1931, but Kwantung officers ignored this deadline
240
What happened on 10th December 1931?
- A commission was ordered to investigate the claims of China and Japan in Manchuria and recommend solutions - This was chaired by British politician Victor Bulwer Lytton and made up of French, Italian, German and American representatives with Chinese and Japanese advisers
241
What happened on 29th February 1932?
The commission landed in China, but progress towards a thorough investigation was painstakingly slow, exacerbated by deliberate Japanese obstruction
242
What was Britain's reaction to the Manchurian Crisis?
- Britain had commercial interests in China and a former alliance with Japan and so became a reluctant focus of the West's reaction to the Manchurian Crisis - The timing, however, was unfortunate as the economic effects of the Depression were yet to be resolved and Britain simply could not afford to send a peacekeeping force to such a remote conflict - Public opinion was correspondingly pessimistic
243
Why was the prospect of imposing economic sanctions on Japan to force her withdrawal a non-starter?
This was one of the few main "weapons" in the LON's arsenal, however, the USA (Japan's main trading partner) had already refused to engage in an international response to the crisis despite being a member of the Lytton Commission
244
What had the Japanese done by the end of 1932?
- With no firm deterrent from the international community, the Japanese forces in China extended their strategic objectives - By the end of 1932, invasion forces had pushed on to Shanghai (largest Asian port), and all of Manchuria was under Japanese control - To emphasise this development, the province was renamed Manchukuo in March and the former Chinese Emperor, Henry Pu Yi was installed as a puppet ruler under Japanese direction
245
What happened on 10th October 1932?
Despite the escalation of the Japanese invasion throughout 1932, the 139-page Lytton report was not published until now
246
What did the 1932 Lytton report say?
Condemned the creation of Manchukuo as a Japanese protectorate, arguing it contravened the principle of self-determination and insisted on the withdrawal of Japanese forces from the region
247
What was the outcome of the 1932 Lytton report?
All member states of the Council voted in favour of the Lytton report except Japan
248
How did the Japanese respond to the 1932 Lytton report?
- The Japanese delegation led by Matsuoka was furious and argued angrily that China was equally to blame for the conflict - Upon hearing the result of the vote, Matsuoka led his delegation in a walk out
249
What happened after the 1932 Lytton report?
- Discussions on what action to take were no easier following Japan's withdrawal from the process - Talks continued in late 1932 and early 1933 with very little agreement
250
What happened in February 1933?
- The issue of the Manchurian Crisis was referred to the Assembly which contained stronger anti-Japanese sentiments and more member states - A new report was therefore drafted
251
What did the Assembly's report on the Manchurian Crisis 1933 say?
- It incorporated Lytton's findings and insisted on both the Japanese army's withdrawal from Manchuria and Japanese recognition of China's rights to the region - It still, however, fell short of condemning Japan
252
When was the Assembly's report on the Manchurian Crisis adopted?
Adopted on 24th February 1933 by 42:1 votes
253
How did Japan react to the Assembly's report on the Manchurian Crisis 1933?
- As with the Lytton report, Japan ignored it - Japan went on to leave the LON altogether in March 1933
254
What is Abyssinia?
An alternative name for the Ethiopian Empire in the 1930s
255
What did Italy do after having completed the "Pacification of Libya"?
Mussolini turned his attention to establishing an empire in East Africa
256
Why was Abyssinia a ripe target for Mussolini's East African Empire aims?
- Ruled by Haile Selassie, the country was one of the only 2 remaining independent states in Africa - However, it was economically undeveloped and had no modern military capabilities - Also, the status of Abyssinian borders was not clear, and so it would be easy for Italy to turn a border dispute into the justification for an invasion
257
Who was Haile Selassie (1892-1975)?
- Became Emperor of Ethiopia/Abyssinia in 1930 - As regent, he had progressive policies and achieved Ethiopia's entrance into the LON - In 1931 he introduced Ethiopia's first written constitution - He fled the country following Italy's invasion but was restored as Emperor in 1941 - Selassie became a popular and respected figure but was deposed in 1974 following a revolution
258
What happened throughout 1934?
Italian troops began to occupy positions around Abyssinia's ambiguous borders, and the hoped for provocation occurred in December 1934 in Walwal
259
What happened in December 1934 in Walwal?
- In a skirmish between Italian and Abyssinian soldiers, 30 Italians were killed - Mussolini insisted on a thorough apology from the Abyssinians and ordered that they pay heavy compensation
260
What did the Abyssinians do in response to Mussolini's provocation in December 1934?
Appealed to the LON to arbitrate and an enquiry was set up, however, nothing practical was done to prevent a full-scale Italian invasion
261
When did Italy launch a full-scale invasion of Abyssinia?
October 1935
262
What gave Mussolini encouragement to invade Abyssinia in 1935?
- He sought assurances that Britain and France wouldn't oppose his Abyssinian ambitions - The Rome Agreements with France Jan 1935 convinced him of French support - further reinforced by April 1935 Stresa Pact - He accurately calculated that both Britain and France would be more concerned by Hitler's rearmament and the possible consequences for the peace in Europe for them to risk Italy's friendship by obstructing the Abyssinian invasion
263
Why did Germany's rearmament worry Italy, however?
- Italy's sending of 650,000 troops to Africa could expose Italy to potential German aggression - However, the Stresa Pact once again convinced Mussolini that the risk was low
264
How was the Italian invasion of Abyssinia 1935 executed thoroughly?
- Mussolini insisted on 10 army divisions rather than the 3 recommended by his generals - The Italian army made full use of their modern equipment - tanks, planes and poison gas - against often barefooted Abyssinians who fought defiantly with rifles and spears
265
What happened in May 1936?
The Italians captured the capital Addis Ababa, forced Haile Selassie to flee and declared victory
266
How did the LON respond to the Abyssinian Crisis 1935?
- Quick to respond to Italian aggression, declaring Italy the aggressor - LON condemned Italy's action as an unprovoked invasion in contravention of the Covenant
267
How did Britain respond to the Abyssinian Crisis 1935?
- Led the call to impose economic sanctions on Italy, but as world trade was yet to fully recover following the Depression, there was little international enthusiasm for the move - However, committing their own troops was even less palatable to member states and so a series of economic restrictions were imposed on Italy, though the nature of sanctions was once again compromised by nations asserting their own interests
268
What sanctions were imposed against Italy by the LON in response to the Abyssinian Crisis?
- The sale of armaments to Italy was banned - Trading some other goods, including gold, rubber, tin and textiles with Italy was banned - Loans to Italy were prohibited - League members could not import Italian goods
269
What sanctions against Italy were avoided by the LON in response to the Abyssinian Crisis?
- Oil exports to Italy were not banned; it was argued that Italy would simply get oil from the USA, making the sanction useless - Coal exports to Italy were not banned; it was argued that British coal-mining would be adversely affected and 30,000 could lose their jobs - The Suez Canal, jointly owned by Britain and France, was not closed to Italian ships
270
What highlighted the weakness of the sanctions the LON decided to impose against Italy?
The fear held by Britain and France that Italy would abandon the Stresa front and ally with Germany, and perhaps provoke war immediately afterwards
271
What weaknesses were there with the sanctions imposed against Italy?
- Allowing oil and coal into Italy helped to resource its war machine - Keeping the Suez Canal open meant that the Italian army had an uninterrupted and convenient supply line to continue its campaign - In many ways the sanctions imposed were the worst of both worlds - they weren't strong enough to convince Mussolini to abandon the invasion, but they were frustrating enough to turn Italian opinion against the LON and towards an alliance with Germany
272
When was the Hoare-Laval Pact signed?
December 1935
273
Who was the Hoare-Laval Pact signed between?
It was a secret proposal between the British FS and the French PM
274
What was the Hoare-Laval Pact 1935?
- An attempt to reconcile the conflicting priorities of the League Council, but without its involvement - Secretly discussed a way to end the fighting in Abyssinia with a settlement strongly in Italy's favour - They proposed that Italy should acquire the best farming land in Abyssinia and its richest mineral resources - This would leave Abyssinia with 1/3 of its territory before the invasion and mostly barren land
275
What was the outcome of the Hoare-Laval Pact 1935?
- Details were leaked to the public - Many citizens of the Western democracies viewed the plans as clear appeasement of an aggressor, making the Pact deeply unpopular
276
Why did the Hoare-Laval Pact 1935 fail?
- The League would have been undermined by a separate agreement outside its jurisdiction - It would also have rewarded Italy with land at the expense of Abyssinia (the victim nation) - The Pact was soon dropped
277
What happened in February 1936?
- The painfully slow speed of the discussions over whether or not to pursue a ban on oil exports to Italy also took its toll - In Feb 1936 it was finally decided that a prohibition would be worthwhile - However, even with American supplies, Italy had almost completed its conquest of Abyssinia
278
What was the state of the LON's reputation after the Manchurian and Abyssinian Crises?
The League's reputation as an effective conciliator was damaged by its poor response to the crises
279
How did the USA feel about the LON at this point?
- The USA's decision not to join the LON, a considerable weakness since 1920, was not reversed by the experience of Japanese and Italian aggression - In fact, America was further put off by the perceived "dodgy dealing" of the Hoare-Laval Pact and the potential impact of world trade caused by Italian sanctions - The Stimson Doctrine cemented its isolationism in response to the Manchurian Crisis
280
How did the USSR feel about the LON at this point?
Noted the LON's inability to deter or halt aggression, making it far less likely to engage with collective security
281
What did the Manchurian Crisis highlight about the LON?
- Highlighted the LON's inherent weaknesses and the self-interest of countries as a result of the Depression - It had failed to prevent a member state from invading and occupying another - The subsequent loss of Japan as a member suggested that even a Council colleague could commit an act of aggression and then withdraw with no meaningful consequences - Britain, due to its economic restraints and public opinion, felt it had no grounds for imposing any sanctions against Japan and France was unwilling to upset the status quo in the Far East - While Mussolini calculated that his own quest for imperial glory would receive as little practical censure as Japan's had, the smaller states, particularly of Europe, could only be worried by the precedent set by Japan
282
What was ultimately the most damaging outcome of the Manchurian and Abyssinian Crises?
- The simple point that both Japan and Italy had got away with acts of aggression against member states, which the League had been powerless to stop - This suggested that collective security would fail in the 1930s, and that nations were better off pursuing private arrangements with other powers just as they had done before WW1 - It also suggested to Hitler that any protests the LON made against the pursuit of his own FP goals would be weak and easily ignored
283
What does H.A.L Fisher argue about the LON?
That its core objective was doomed to failure as it was impossible for all countries to commit themselves to a permanent peace - "League or no League, a country which is determined to have war can always have it"
284
What does A.J.P Taylor argue about the Hoare-Laval Pact?
- Claimed that the refusal to consider, much less to adopt, the Pact was foolish as it differed little in nature from the League's tacit acceptance of Japan's occupation of Manchuria - Asserts that the Pact would "end the war; satisfied Italy; and left Abyssinia with a more workable national territory"
285
What did A.J.P Taylor argue about the LON?
Argued it was the Abyssinian Crisis which caused the LON's ultimate demise - "One day it was a powerful body imposing sanctions, the next it was an empty sham, everyone scuttling from it as quickly as possible. Hitler watched."
286
What does Pederson argue about the League's inherent weaknesses?
"Diplomacy requires leaders who can speak for their states; it requires secrecy; and it requires the ability to make credible threats. The Covenant's security arrangements met none of these criteria"
287
What was the outcome for the LON after the crises?
It continued to operate with far less support from either the public or its member states until the outbreak of war in Europe in September 1939
