Topic 3 - The coming of war, 1911–1917 Flashcards
1
Q
What happened in 1911?
A
Italy launches attack on Ottoman Empire at Tripoli
2
Q
What happened in 1912?
A
Balkan League formed
3
Q
When was the First Balkan War?
A
October 1912-May 1913
4
Q
When was the Treaty of London signed?
A
May 1913
5
Q
When was the Second Balkan War?
A
July 1913
6
Q
What happened in August 1913?
A
The Treaties of Bucharest and Constantinople are signed
7
Q
What was life in the Balkans like in 1911?
A
- The independent Balkan nations had grown in confidence and military strength and were determined to engineer their future themselves
- Enjoyed a period of relative calm - a time in which the newly independent Balkan states could develop their goals, many of which revolving around pan-Slavism
- The Macedonian Question remained and was of increasing concern to the independent Balkan states - sought to champion ethnic minorities living under Turkish oppression in Macedonia - desired to force Turkey out of Europe for good
8
Q
What is pan-Slavism?
A
The principle or advocacy of the union of all Slavs or all Slavic peoples in one political organisation
9
Q
Why did the Italians attack Tripoli in 1911?
A
- They had long wanted a colony in North Africa as they were disappointed by their lack of gains at Berlin in 1878.
- In summer 1911, they took advantage of the instability in Constantinople following the Young Turk revolution and attacked and occupied the Ottoman province of Tripoli
10
Q
When did Turkey declare war on Italy?
A
29th September 1911
11
Q
How did the Ottoman Government respond to the Italian attack on Tripoli?
A
They diverted many of their forces to North Africa, leaving its remaining Balkan territories exposed
12
Q
How were the Balkan states encouraged to advance their positions?
A
The Italian navy threatened Turkey’s islands in the Aegean Sea, and by May 1912, the war was at a stalemate, encouraging the Balkan states to advance whilst the Turkish Government and its resources were focused elsewhere. The war had revealed the poor state of the Ottoman military
13
Q
Who was key in the creation of the Balkan League in 1912?
A
- The Greek PM, Venizelos - hoped to make Greece’s neighbours into firm allies
- Hartwig - Russian ambassador to Serbia, stationed in Belgrade - recognised opportunity posed by the Italian attack on the Ottoman Empire and encouraged the Serbs to agree to an alliance with Bulgaria
- hoped to deter AH and German ambitions there, securing Russia’s interests in the Balkans - partly acting on his own initiative
14
Q
What happened in spring 1912?
A
Serbia and Bulgaria joined together with an agreement - both frustrated with lack of readiness of Great Powers to protect fellow Christians from Ottoman aggression - time for them to take situation in Balkans into their own hands - Russian encouragement instrumental in formation of Balkan collaboration
15
Q
What happened to form the Balkan League in May 1912?
A
At the instigation of Venizelos, Greece and Montenegro joined Bulgaria and Serbia to form the Balkan League - committed to driving the Ottomans out of the Balkan region for good
16
Q
Why did the Balkan League agreement not progress any further?
A
- Each power had a different view for the future of the Balkans
- Bulgaria wanted an independent Macedonia which looked for protection from Bulgaria and the port of Salonika on the Aegean Sea, whereas Serbia wanted to divide up Macedonia and was interested in gaining Albania and an outlet to the Adriatic Sea.
- Serbian and Bulgarian diplomats disagreed on how Macedonia should be divided in the event of a Balkan League victory, and the final document only laid out rough borders and that the fate of the centre would be decided by Tsar Nicholas II
17
Q
What happened in Macedonia in summer 1912?
A
Albanian riots spread throughout Macedonia which the Turks were unable to control. In September, the Balkan League took advantage of this and mobilised their forces
18
Q
What happened on 7th September 1912?
A
Bulgaria declared war on the Ottoman Empire without first consulting its allies
19
Q
What happened on 8th October 1912?
A
Montenegro declared war on Turkey
20
Q
What happened on 18th October 1912?
A
Greece and Serbia declared war on Turkey
21
Q
Describe the events of the First Balkan War
A
- The Turks were in no position to resist, but the rivalry between the Balkan powers was evident from the start.
- The Bulgarian forces rushed to Macedonia to seize it before Greece could and pressed southwards, forcing the Ottomans out of Eastern Thrace and back to Constantinople after many victories.
- After Russia warned them of the consequences, however, they did not continue to move on to the Turkish capital
22
Q
What other successes did the Balkan League have?
A
Serbia took Northern Albania, Greece seized Salonika, and virtually all of European Turkey fell to the Balkan League
23
Q
When was an armistice signed between Turkey, Serbia and Bulgaria?
A
3rd December 1912
24
Q
What happened following the armistice?
A
Fighting renewed in early 1913, but the Turks conceded defeat after the loss of Adrianople in April 1913
25
How did the Great Powers react to the First Balkan War?
AH - feared a multi national Yugoslav empire - Hotzendorf, Austrian Chief of General Staff advocated a pre-emptive strike against Serbia and argued for Austrian intervention at the outbreak of the Balkan War - supported by Germany Russia - seemed entirely possible it would support Serbia and Bulgaria against Turkey as its client states - supported by France
26
Who was Leopold von Berchtold (1863-1942)?
Austrian Foreign Minister from 1912 - before Balkan Wars, wanted to keep the status quo in Balkans to avoid war, but became less sympathetic to Serbia following its successes in the wars. Agreed with Hotzendorf on issuing the ultimatum to Serbia in July 1914. Dismissed in 1915
27
Who was Edward Grey (1862-1933)?
British Foreign Secretary from 1905-1916. Attempts at crisis management in 1914 failed - tried to limit impact of conflict between Austria and Serbia in July 1914 but vagueness in discussions with foreign ambassadors allowed for misunderstandings. Resigned as FS in 1916 and became ambassador to the USA later
28
What were the actions of the Great Powers in 1912?
Germany, Austria and Russia had avoided interfering at first, but Austria and Russia mobilised in November 1912 alarmed by the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Diplomats and ambassadors were asked to provide assurance that previous alliance treaties still stood in place to ensure their protection if dispute broke out in the Balkans. Poincare, French PM, reassured Russia of his support and promised that Britain would support France if Germany went to war with them. Edward Grey, British FS, called for talks between the Great Powers in London in December 1912. Grey established that British support of France and Russia was flimsy and Britain was free to take any action it wanted in relation to the Balkan crisis, but he was worried enough by the war against Turkey to plan to mobilise in the event of the threat of France by Germany. Grey was keen to avert the triggering of the alliance systems in relation to the Balkan War.
29
What action did the Great Powers take in 1913?
Gathered in London at the start of 1913 to discuss a settlement on the Balkans as the status of them had changed hugely since the 1878 Berlin Conference whereby the Ottoman Empire retained some power there to stop Russia expanding her influence, which was no longer a realistic aim and attention was turned to managing the ambitions of the individual Balkan Powers carefully so none became too aggressive and ensuring Slav nationalism didn't create further conflict there. British and German representatives mediated between the conflicting Balkan interests, persuading Russia and Austria to compromise - Russia could not bring to life all of its expansionist aims for client states, particularly Serbia, and Austria could not dictate the borders of its new neighbours
30
What was agreed in the Treaty of London 1913?
A result of the negotiations between the Great Powers rather than the Balkan states, and the terms were not received well by those affected. - Greece would receive Crete, Salonika and Southern Macedonia (with a large Bulgarian population) - Bulgaria would keep Thrace - Serbia would receive Central and Northern Macedonia - Albania would become an independent state on the Adriatic coast
31
What was the Serbian reaction to the Treaty of London?
Very resentful of Austrian insistence on creation of independent Albania as it closed a stretch of coastline which the Serbians had hoped to expand into and kept them a landlocked state. They also felt entitled to a greater share of Macedonia and resented Bulgarian support for Austria.
32
Where did dispute between Serbia and Bulgaria lie?
The Bulgarians felt that they had borne the largest share of fighting and wanted more of Macedonia, as was the ambition of Serbia. Both states were determined to win back what they felt they deserved
33
How did Serbia respond to the dispute between her and Bulgaria?
Formed an alliance with Greece on 1st June 1913
34
How did the Great Powers feel about the Treaty of London?
Felt that it had been a success, which may have led to the later mismanagement of the July Crisis after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Leading statesmen, such as Grey, showed signs of complacency in 1914, confident that a war triggered by a Balkan crisis could be avoided by diplomacy again
35
How was the Second Balkan War different to the first?
The military strength of independent Balkan states had increased and had threatened and defeated the Ottoman Empire when working together as the Balkan League - a Bulgarian general called them the "most militaristic state" - however, in the Second Balkan War, the armies turned against each other
36
How did Tsar Nicholas II of Russia try to quell conflict on the horizon?
Attempted to organise negotiations between the Balkan states, and on 8th June 1913, contacted rulers of Serbia and Bulgaria, offering services as an arbitrator, however, this attempt was ruined by the orders of the Bulgarian General Savov on 28th June to launch surprise attacks on Serbia.
37
Why did the Bulgarians attack Serbia on 28th June 1913?
Called it a "pre-emptive strike" - Bulgarians convinced that the Greeks and Serbs would attack before long, however, Bulgaria did not declare war on either states before attacking in the hope that they would be able to make solid advances into Macedonia before the Great Powers got involved
38
How were Bulgaria defeated in their attack?
Though public opinion of Bulgaria was increasingly militaristic and resumption of hostilities was overwhelmingly popular, the Bulgarian army was outnumbered by mid-July as the previously neutral Romania and Turkey joined Serbia's side, with the Turks being hopeful to use the dispute between their former enemies as an opportunity to win back some of what they had lost. The Turks succeeded in regaining Adrianople, and in August 1913, Bulgaria asked for peace terms
39
When was the Treaty of Bucharest signed?
10th August 1913
40
What was agreed in the Treaty of Bucharest?
Signed by Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia. Bulgaria lost most of its recent gains, surrendering territory to Greece and Serbia, with Serbia almost doubling in size and Romania gaining a small amount of territory in Northern Bulgaria in recognition of its part in the fighting.
41
When was the Treaty of Constantinople signed?
13th August 1913
42
What did the Treaty of Constantinople state?
Bulgaria had to return Adrianople to Turkey
43
What did the Bulgarian humiliation encourage of Serbia?
Boosted the Serbs' confidence and in September 1913, they invaded Albania, hoping to fulfil their ambition to take a coastal strip, and only withdrew when AH threatened intervention. Still some Greek troops remained stationed in the area until 1914
44
What were the terms of the Treaty of Bucharest 1913?
- A mixed commission will supervise the division of lands and funds belonging to common districts, commune or communities separated by the new frontier. In case of disagreement on borders, the signatories agree to request a friendly gov to appoint an arbitrator, whose decision will be considered final - Questions over the old Serbo-Bulgarian frontier will be settled according to the understanding reached by the two High Contracting Parties - The headquarters of the respective armies shall be informed by signing this treaty. The Bulgarian gov engages to reduce its army to a peace footing on the day after such a notification - The evacuation of Bulgarian territory shall begin immediately after the demobilisation of the Bulgarian army and will be complete within a period of 15 days at most
45
What is meant by the term "peace footing"?
The status of an army whose country is at peace and which is needed only for self-defence; usually the number of active soldiers is reduced
46
What is meant by the term "demobilisation"?
The process by which armed forces are disbanded
47
How had the Balkan wars affected the Balkans?
They had divided the states more than ever - Serbian prestige grew while Bulgarians had emerged frustrated and embittered, especially after their early military successes in the First Balkan War. Bulgaria had heavy losses with little reward and resented Greece's acquisition of Salonika. By 1913, it was clear that Bulgaria would never assist Serbia in any future conflict
48
How did the Balkan wars affect relations between AH and Serbia?
Relations had worsened - Serbia was angry and frustrated by the AH insistence on creating Albania at the Treaty of London as it prevented Serbia maintaining access to the sea it had gained with its brief occupation of the port of Durazzo. Serbian ministers believed that AH was deliberately blocking its ambitions
49
What territory did Serbia gain as a result of the Balkan wars?
The former Ottoman province of Kosovo and land in Macedonia
50
How did Serbia's gaining of these territories cause problems?
The territories included minority populations of Albanian Muslims who rebelled against Serbian rule. Belgrade responded to this so quickly and savagely that it has marred relations between Serbia and Albania ever since
51
How did Serbia encourage nationalist movements?
Its increased confidence, boosted by its territorial growth and double success on the battlefield, encouraged nationalist movements like the Black Hand to further their ambitions for the creation of a Greater Serbia and the union of the Southern Slavs. The Times commented on Serbia's confidence - "The Serbs listened to nothing and were capable of all sorts of follies"
52
Why was Bulgaria frustrated with Russia?
Russia had lacked offer of support for Bulgaria even though Bulgaria was one of its client states. Bulgaria grew closer to AH as they now shared the common goal of restricting and crushing Serbian ambitions. Bulgaria later fought alongside Germany and AH in WW1
53
How did German support for the Young Turk movement cause problems?
To the dismay of France and Russia, the Turks invited a German General, Liman von Sanders, to undertake the reorganisation of the Turkish army in Constantinople. With military and economic assistance from Germany, the Young Turk movement prepared for retaliation for the loss of more than 90% of its European Empire
54
What was Germany's opinion on involvement in the First Balkan War?
Many German politicians and military staff could see the danger of being dragged into further trouble in the Balkans. The Kaiser said at the start of the FBW "I will keep out of it"
55
How did Germany prepare for involvement in the Second Balkan War?
In July 1913, the German army was increased to its largest size in its history when the Reichstag agreed to a further 130,000 troops after the SBW broke out even after the Treaty of London had been signed
56
How was Germany's Schlieffen Plan amended after 1905?
Military staff reduced the number of attacking troops and altered their course so they would not attack via Holland
57
Why did Russia create Plan No 19 in 1908-09 and what was its tactic?
It was drawn up by the Russian War Ministry after Germany offered AH support against them. It provided for a speedy attack on East Prussia during the critical opening phase of war, so diverting German troops from France, and the French provided capital for railway-building to implement it. However, in May 1912, Russian traditionalists, more concerned about Russian expansion in the Balkans, forced an alteration by which Russian forces were to be divided and half sent to the Southern Front, to attack AH through Galicia. This was to prove to Germany's advantage in 1914
58
What was the tactic of AH's plans R and B?
They had two plans: Plan R dealt with Russia and Plan B dealt with the Balkans, and they were designed to cover different eventualities. Plan B ran directly to counter the Schlieffen Plan, which Germany had shared with AH in 1909. The mobilisation order had to be written in 27 different languages and the military command structure of the Habsburg Monarchy, with its dual authority, was slower and less well-organised, making the AH plans difficult to implement
59
What was the tactic of the French Plan XVII?
It was highly aggressive and was developed in the wake of the Three Year Service law 1913. It involved an all-out offensive in Lorraine and was a mark of the confidence of the French High Command at this time. The French mobilisation was centred on precise use of railway timetables, which necessitated trains being in position to move soldiers with meticulous implement
60
What was the effect of the Balkan Wars on the alliances?
When AH forced Serbia to stop trying to annex Albania, Germany assured AH that it had their full support, as it had done during the Bosnian Crisis. The Entente powers strengthened their commitments to each other - French President Poincaré confirmed support for Russia if they were attacked by Germany because of AH's actions in the Balkans. Anglo-French Naval Agreement concluded in 1912 - guaranteed British protection of French coastline in case of German attack, and French navy would protect British interests in the Mediterranean - a highly significant agreement Both the arms race and the system of alliance seemed primed for war
61
What happened on 28th June 1914?
8 men lined the route of Archduke Franz Ferdinand's car as it drove through the streets of Sarajevo, and despite concerns about security there and a vague warning from the Serbian Government about an assassination plot, the local crowds gave Ferdinand and his wife a warm welcome, however, the 8 men were members of the Black Hand Movement, carrying with them pistols, bombs, and vials of cyanide to swallow after completing the assassination. When one assassin injured some of Ferdinand's advisers with a grenade, Ferdinand insisted on visiting them in hospital later that morning, and on the way there, his driver took a wrong turn at a corner outside Schiller's Delicatessen and the car pulled up next to Gavrilo Princip, who proceeded to fire two shots, hitting Franz Ferdinand in the neck and his pregnant wife Sophie in the abdomen. The pair died on their way to hospital.
62
Who was Gavrilo Princip (1894-1918)?
He was most likely recruited by the Black Hand to undertake Franz Ferdinand's assassination as he suffered from TB and so was willing to sacrifice the short amount of time he had left for the nationalist cause. Princip was arrested after the shooting before he could commit suicide, and since he was under 21, he received a 20 year prison sentence. However, he died of his TB in 1918
63
Why did the Black Hand target Franz Ferdinand?
Led by Colonel Dimitrijevic, they had attempted to murder Franz Josef in 1911, but by 1914, his nephew and heir, Franz Ferdinand, seemed a much bigger threat to Serbian nationalist aims as he hoped to instigate political reform, giving the nationalities within the empire far more influence and incorporating the neighbours of AH into the "United States of Great Austria". This would threaten Serbian independence and could make the Slavs in the Habsburg Empire more loyal to AH, and therefore less interested in Slav nationalism. Ironically, if AH's anger with Serbia had not been exacerbated by a different crisis, Franz Ferdinand likely would have been one of the strongest voices calling for moderation and avoidance of war
64
How did Emperor Franz Josef feel personally about the assassination of his nephew?
He was far from devastated - he did not approve of Franz Ferdinand's ways, which were "not conservative enough" and he disapproved of his marriage to the non-royal Sophie Chotek
65
How did AH in general react to the assassination?
They were appalled - anti-Serb street violence broke out, and for military chiefs in particular, the murder provided the opportunity they had been looking for to crush Serbia once and for all
66
What did Franz Conrad von Hotzendorf do?
The Chief of Staff led aggressive anti-Serbs in the AH military in advocating the immediate invasion of Serbia. Though there was no proof that the Serbian government was involved in the assassination plan, they pointed out that Serbs had allowed Princip and his associates to cross into Bosnia and had failed to prevent the activities of the Black Hand
67
How did Hotzendorf believe the other European powers would react to an AH invasion of Serbia?
He and his colleagues believed that the rest of Europe would see little problem with an AH invasion of Serbia as they would merely be taking retaliatory action to what could be considered a declaration of war by Serbia
68
How did the rest of Europe actually react to the assassination?
Most of Europe's monarchs, including Tsar Nicholas II expressed their shock at the assassination, but many in Western Europe were indifferent to yet another Eastern political assassination. The Austrian Chancellor Berchtold knew that Russia would be unlikely to stand aside if Serbia, their client state, was attacked without warning, and so, anticipating an attack from Russia, AH sought a firmer guarantee of German support which had already been expressed during the Bosnian Crisis and in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars
69
How did AH eventually respond to the assassination?
Many in the Austrian ministerial council and general staff favoured a military response to the assassination, but their response to it was too slow to take advantage of the shock felt by the rest of Europe and their immediate sympathy for the Habsburgs. The main reason for this was that, since the Dual Monarchy shared the same army and foreign policy, the Hungarian PM, Istvan Tisza, had to be consulted, and though he agreed that strong measures should be taken against Serbia, he was not convinced that war was the correct answer and advocated exhausting all diplomatic options before resorting to conflict
70
How was Germany's role in the unfolding crisis crucial?
Since 1912, its chiefs had advocated war against Russia before the Tsar's armies grew too strong. Meanwhile, its alliance with AH had been tested in the Balkan Crises and the Bosnian Crisis, with the German government declaring its continuing support for AH
71
How was the German decision to support AH different in this crisis to the ones which had gone before?
This one could be much more serious - Russia was unlikely to allow Serbia to be attacked without responding, Russian involvement would likely prompt the French, and perhaps British intervention.
72
What did Kaiser Wilhelm II do on 5th July 1914?
He responded to the Austrian FM Berchtold's letter appealing for German support through the German Chancellor, Bethmann Hollweg promising that Germany "will faithfully stand by AH as is required by the obligations of his alliance and of his ancient friendship"
73
What was the promise Kaiser Wilhelm made in his letter to Berchtold known as?
The Blank Cheque - it implied that Germany would back AH in whatever actions they should choose to take, and AH could make the demands of the cheque as large as they wanted - no stipulations were made
74
What could be the reason for Germany issuing the Blank Cheque to AH?
They may not have realised the full implications However, it could be that, since the 1912 War Council had found Germany's best chance of war to be in 1914, Germany saw this episode as the moment they had been waiting for. German Chief of Staff, General Helmuth von Moltke, said that war was "unavoidable", and the German High Command was deeply concerned about the growing military strength of Russia - the Schlieffen Plan relied on the element of surprise and rapid mobilisation of troops before the enemy was ready to retaliate The Kaiser and his advisers could have believed that Russia would back down like they did in 1908 when faced with a united AH and Germany, and so the declaration of support was nothing more than scaremongering the Russians
75
What were the actions taken by AH after receiving the Blank Cheque?
The cabinet debated their action while the Austrian envoy, Baron von Wiesner tried unsuccessfully in Belgrade to discover evidence of the Serbian government's involvement in the assassination plot
76
What had AH decided by 14th July 1914?
They had decided on war, and prepared an ultimatum in the following week, but this was not dispatched until the French President, Poincare, had left from his visit to St Petersburg in Russia
77
When was the Austrian ultimatum sent to the Serbians?
23rd July 1914
78
What did AH expect from Serbia after sending the ultimatum?
AH demanded a satisfactory answer within 48 hours or AH would declare war on Serbia
79
What were the AH government concerned about?
They were worried that the other European powers would view the ultimatum as harsh and therefore they sent each of the powers a letter explaining its actions along with copies of the ultimatum itself
80
What were the terms set out in the ultimatum?
BY 25TH JULY - The Royal government of Serbia had to declare that they condemn anti-AH propaganda and that it regrets that Serbian army officers participated in it - All newspapers and publications hostile to AH to be suppressed - The National Defence Society to be dissolved - All school teachers and army officers hostile to AH to be dismissed - AH police officials to be allowed into Serbia to investigate the assassination - Austrian lawyers to participate in judicial proceedings against suspects - Frontier guards to be punished for allowing conspirators to enter Bosnia - An apology to be given for anti-AH remarks by Serbian government officials since the assassination
81
What approach did Serbia take following receiving the ultimatum?
Their position was very difficult - they hated the idea of submitting to the demands of their long term enemy, but at the same time their army had been exhausted by the Balkan Wars and the state was struggling to repress rebellions amongst its new southern population. Serbia's strategy was therefore to adopt a conciliatory approach, stall for time as much as possible and enlist Russian support should AH refuse to be easily satisfied. The health of King Paul was declining, so the Serbian appeal to Russia was signed off by his son and regent, Prince Alexander
82
Who was Sergei Dmitrievich Sazonov (1860-1927)?
Russian FM from 1910-1916, replacing Izvolsky. Supported the Balkan League during the wars of 1912-13 as he could not antagonise the Dual Alliance - the Russian military was too weak to fight a large war. Sazonov advised Serbia to appease Austria in response to the ultimatum, but then advised Nicholas II to mobilise the Russian army. Sazonov was dismissed in 1916 after disagreeing with the Russian Tsarina
83
Why was Russia's response to the Serbian appeal for help mixed at first?
Two issues clouded Russian policy at this point - the Tsar displayed classic indecision and appeared to change his mind according to whichever minister or officer he spoke to last, and the government was mindful that its actions could easily pull France and Britain into the crisis, and they ought to be consulted. Also, Russia's response to the assassination and the ultimatum was crucial, especially after Germany's promise to support AH, as Serbia was too weak to fight both powers without a powerful ally
84
How did Sergei Sazonov react to the ultimatum?
He was shocked by the terms and the Russian Council of Ministers met on 24th and 25th July to discuss how to respond
85
How did the Russian position develop as the deadline for the ultimatum approached?
The Russian position became firmer but still ambiguous in practice - Sazonov stated on 25th July that Russia would "go to the limit in defence of Serbia", and whilst this stopped short of a guarantee of military support, Sazonov and the British FM, Edward Grey, put pressure on AH to extend its deadline
86
How did the Serbian view on how to respond to the ultimatum develop?
Serbia was prepared to make concessions and initially considered giving way on all accounts, but nevertheless they played for time by rejecting the demands that Austrian police officials enter Serbia and Austrian lawyers participate in judicial proceedings, as spurred on by Russia
87
Why were Serbia unhappy to allow Austrian police officials and lawyers into the state?
They believed that such demands were an unreasonable challenge to Serbian sovereignty, saying that it was "a violation of the constitution and of criminal procedure"
88
What is sovereignty?
The authority of a state to govern itself
89
What did the Serbians say in their reply?
They conceded to the ultimatum on every other point but letting Austrian police officials and lawyers into the country for the investigation into the assassination. Considering the deliberate harshness of the terms, the fact that they conceded so far was remarkable
90
When did the Serbians reply to the ultimatum?
25th July 1914
91
What did most of Europe believe AH's reaction to Serbia's response would be?
Most of Europe, including Germany, thought that Serbia's conciliatory response to the ultimatum would be accepted by AH even though Serbia had begun a partial mobilisation in case of Austrian attack
92
How did Austria actually react to the Serbian response?
They said that nothing but complete capitulation would be accepted
93
What did AH and Russia do in order to prevent the final slide into war?
They arranged hasty talks which broke down on 27th July
94
How did Germany perceive the situation?
Germany increasingly regarded conflict as inevitable and advocated decisiveness on the part of AH so they could keep the military initiative, though Germany was careful to appear ignorant of AH intentions so as to avoid blame
95
When did AH declare war on Serbia?
28th July 1914
96
Why did AH declare war on Serbia?
As the Serbian government had "not answered in a satisfactory manner on 23rd July", AH saw fit that it should "see to the safeguarding of their rights and interests" declaring itself "henceforward in a state of war with Serbia"
97
What happened in Serbia following the declaration of war in preparation?
As Serbia had already started mobilisation, all men of military service age had already been conscripted and many families had fled to the country, leaving Belgrade quiet - it was an area in Northern Serbia which was poorly prepared for an enemy assault as they had historically always come from the south from the Ottomans or Bulgarians
98
What happened on 29th July 1914?
In the early hours, under the orders of Black Hand member Major Tankosic, Serbians destroyed a bridge over the River Sava which connected Serbian territory to the AH empire.
99
When was Belgrade taken by the Austrians?
The Austrians performed a major assault on 5th August 1914, but the city was finally taken by them on 30th November 1914 under the command of General Potiorek who had been in the same car as Franz Ferdinand when he was assassinated
100
In summary, what was the German response to the assassination?
- Informed by concerns about Russia's growing military strength - Issued "blank cheque" - a promise of support for Austria - on 5th July 1914 in the hope that Russia would back down - Expected Serbia's response to the ultimatum to satisfy AH
101
In summary, what was the Russian response to the assassination?
- Approached by Serbia for support following the ultimatum - Advised Serbia to stall for time - Had to consider the interests of its Triple Entente partners, Britain and France
102
In summary, what was the AH response to the assassination?
- Anti-Serbs (e.g. Hotzendorf) saw the assassination as a strong excuse for war - Unwilling to act alone with Russian support for Serbia likely - German support sought - Following the German "blank cheque", the ultimatum drawn up on 23rd July was deliberately harsh - Rejected Serbia's conciliatory response and declared war 28th July
103
What was becoming clear to the Russian government by July 1914 and why?
That its influence in the Balkans and its prestige as a Great Power were both at stake. This was due to their backing down in the Bosnian Crisis and not intervening in the Balkan Wars. Their role as "Protector of the Slavs" was also at stake
104
What did this decline in Russian prestige cause Russia to consider?
Many in the government, including Sazonov, felt they had little choice but to intervene, with the Tsar at first toying with only partial mobilisation, readying troops to fight AH only, in the hope of encouraging Germany to back down. As a result, a series of desperate telegrams were sent between Wilhelm and Nicholas, who were cousins, in attempt to persuade each other not to go to war - these are known as the Nicky and Willy telegrams
105
How were Germany working to present themselves in the face of potential Russian mobilisation?
As the victim of aggression - Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg instructed the German ambassador to Russia on 29th July to "Kindly impress on Sazonov very seriously that further progress of Russian mobilisation measures would compel us to mobilise and that then European war would scarcely be prevented" - this acted as Germany's ultimatum to Russia, that they would have to cease military prep or Germany would mobilise against them
106
Who was Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg (1856-1921)?
German Chancellor 1909-1917. Despite his role in preventing the escalation of the 1912-13 Balkan Wars, by 1914 he was deeply unpopular in Germany and lacked the authority to stop Germany's entry into war. Before and during the conflict, he clashed with Admiral von Tirpitz over naval armaments and submarine warfare. He resigned in 1917
107
How did Russia respond to Germany's ultimatum?
The generals asserted that only general mobilisation would give Russia a strong chance of victory against the Dual Alliance
108
When did Russia mobilise its army?
30th July 1914
109
What did Russia believe its mobilisation would achieve?
They hoped that it would act as a threat to Germany and saw it as a last diplomatic effort to maintain peace between the two states
110
How did Germany view the Russian mobilisation?
Wilhelm angrily criticised Nicholas for secretly readying armies while pressurising him to negotiate with AH. He saw the mobilisation as a declaration of war and claimed he had no choice but to declare war on Russia in response. The mobilisation suited the pro-war ministers and high command though as they had hoped to defeat Russia in a preventative war, and it also meant that Wilhelm could later blame Russia for the outbreak of conflict, releasing an official statement called "How Russia Betrayed Germany's Confidence2
111
What is meant by the term "preventative war"
A small scale, quick war planned to avoid a larger, longer one later on
112
Why was a wider war in Eastern Europe looking more likely from 30th July 1914?
Germany began to mobilise in response to Russia's actions, and the German army under Moltke (Chief of Staff) sent a telegram to the Austrian High Command to encourage them also to mobilise against both Russia and Serbia. This prompted exasperation amongst Austrian government as Bethmann Hollweg had been encouraging AH military to scale down its attack on Belgrade, highlighting the confusion in AH over the struggle between military and civilian authority
113
What happened on 31st July 1914?
Emperor Franz Josef signed the order for AH's full mobilisation in prep for war against Russia
114
How was power beginning to shift in Germany?
After Germany's ultimatum to Russia on 29th July was disregarded, decision making power was slipping from the Chancellor and the Kaiser (who wanted to prevent the slide to war) and into the hands of the military. Moltke was aware that Germany's highly prepared Schlieffen Plan depended on his army maintaining the initiative and believed that any delay could be fatal
115
What happened on 1st August 1914?
Under great pressure from his generals, Wilhelm signed for general mobilisation and declared war on Russia
116
Why were the people in Britain and France not interested in the Balkans?
Newspapers barely reported the assassination or its consequences as both were more preoccupied with domestic concerns; - In France, the trial of the wife of the ex PM Joseph Caillaux for shooting the editor of Le Figaro captured public attention - In Britain, the growing militancy of the suffragettes and the increasingly volatile debate over Home Rule in Ireland consumed the government's agenda for weeks
117
What did Britain attempt to do after the Austrian ultimatum?
Grey attempted to mediate between the powers, and when AH began to mobilise against Serbia on 27th July, Grey called for a conference of the Great Powers, but both Germany and AH refused attendance
118
Why was there debate over whether Britain should fight alongside France and Russia when war broke out?
The agreements Britain had made with them did not compromise her freedom of action and Britain could remain neutral without backtracking on diplomatic commitments. The secret 1912 Anglo-French Naval Agreement committed the French to defending the Mediterranean in war against Germany while Britain would defend the North Sea and the French Atlantic Coast, but Winston Churchill (first Lord of Admiralty) reminded French that it was not a firm military commitment - Britain would have to declare war on Germany before following this plan. A crucial factor for Britain to consider, though, was whether Germany would enact the Schlieffen Plan and invade neutral Belgium to evade France's strongest defences
119
Who was Sir Winston Churchill (1874-1965)?
A soldier before an MP in 1900. As First Lord of the Admiralty in ww1, he took responsibility for the 1915 Gallipoli disaster. a determined critic of appeasement, he was not a popular choice to replace Chamberlain in 1940 as PM, but his stirring speeches were credited with helping Britain win ww2
120
What was France's stance if the war were to extend to German involvement?
Under President Poincaré, it was already more directly involved if Germany decided to fight. It was committed to offer military support to Russia under the terms of the Franco-Russian Alliance 1894 and realised that Germany was likely to attack France if Germany and Russia went to war against each other
121
Who was Raymond Poincaré (1860-1934)?
Became President for 4th time in 1913. Visit to St Petersburg between 20-22nd July 1914 was scheduled before Franz Ferdinand's assassination, but Poincaré took the opportunity to reassure Nicholas II of French support. German propagandists later used that visit for their argument that the pair had plotted the escalation of the conflict, labelling it "Poincaré's War". He remained a key figure in French politics until his retirement in 1929
122
What was Germany's ultimatum to France?
Aimed to seem that Germany was acting defensively, not aggressively. Germany secretly had no intention of abandoning the Schlieffen Plan, but they demanded that France hand over their fortresses at Toul and Verdun on the border with Germany, until the defeat of Russia was completed. They also insisted that France should make no military prep of its own even though it was allied to Russia. Alike to the AH ultimatum to Serbia, the demands on France were likely to be rejected - it was unthinkable that Germany would effectively be allowed to dictate French foreign policy. The Germans did not want France to resist if the Schlieffen Plan was to be successful - Germany needed France to be totally defeated, not placated to make war against Russia effective
123
What happened on 3rd August 1914?
France had ignored the ultimatum, so Germany declared war on France
124
What did Germany do to keep up the pretence that they were fighting a defensive war?
They claimed that French planes had bombed the city of Nuremburg
125
How did the Schlieffen Plan change?
They had already been altered since 1905, but the modifications made speed and the element of surprise more important. At the last minute, the Kaiser's nerve began to fail and he asked his military chiefs to alter their plans so they only attacked Russia and not France. It was, however, too late. The minute detail of planning could not be reversed
126
When did Belgium declare its neutrality?
24th July 1914
127
What did the Belgian government do in spite of its neutrality?
They mobilised their army and moved to defend its French and German borders in case it could not avoid involvement in the escalating crisis
128
What happened on 2nd August 1914?
The German ambassador in Brussels presented the Belgian FM with an ultimatum from Germany, demanding that the German northern army be allowed to march through Belgium to reach France unresisted
129
How did Belgium respond to Germany's ultimatum?
The cabinet met and discussed into the early hours and finally decided to reject the ultimatum, deciding instead to fight to defend their neutrality, meanwhile hoping that diplomatic efforts would be successful in avoiding a Western European war. Consequently, King Albert of Belgium appealed to King George V of Britain for "diplomatic assistance", but to keep their commitment to neutrality, orders were given to the army to fire on any French and German troops who crossed their borders
130
What happened on 4th August 1914?
Schlieffen plan put into action and the Belgians resisted as planned. They were outnumbered by the German army 10:1, but placed hope in fortresses around the city of Liege. Huge German guns eventually overcame the Belgian defences
131
How did Britain use the German invasion of Belgium as propaganda?
Used the poor treatment of Belgian civilians by German soldiers as powerful propaganda, creating posters, the publication of first-hand testimonies and newspaper cartoons with slogans like "The Rape of Belgium" and "Once a German, always a German", giving Britain further justification for their involvement in the war as well as lending emotional appeal to its recruitment campaigns
132
What had Britain and Germany promised in the 1839 Treaty of London?
To defend Belgium's neutrality
133
What did the Germans think Britain would do in regards to the 1839 Treaty of London?
They thought they were very unlikely to honour the agreement, believing it to be insignificant in 1914 - Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg expressed surprise that Britain were willing to go to war based on a "scrap of paper", however, there WERE other factors at play
134
How did pressure from France lead to Britain entering the war?
- Grey was careful to emphasise Britain's "free hand" as its alliances with France and Russia were informal and didn't extend to military support - However, the terms of the secret Anglo-French Naval Agreement did involve a stronger military commitment to the French than the public Anglo-French Entente - if Britain went to war against Germany, its navy was obliged to defend the French Channel ports - Grey called for the kind of international conference that had contained crises in the past - However, the French put pressure on Grey and Asquith to declare Britain's full support for its allies if Germany attacked - The PM was aware of the political consequences of joining the war - the resignation of his cabinet members and a coalition government with the conservatives - Grey stalled for time, making no concrete promises - Critics later claimed that if Britain had clearly stated they would lend France military support, Germany wouldn't have proceeded so far in mobilisation
135
What did the British cabinet need to convince Parliament that war was worthwhile?
An act of outright aggression by Germany
136
Where had Britain stood until 2nd August 1914 on when they would enter war?
Asquith assured the German ambassador to London that Britain wouldn't go to war unless Germany invaded Belgium or used the Channel ports to attack France
137
How did the invasion of Belgium give Britain the perfect excuse to enter war?
- 1839 Treaty of London - "scrap of paper" - dishonoured by Germany - 3rd August - news reached London of German soldiers massing on the Belgian border -> Asquith gave in to increasing pressure and ordered Winston Churchill (1st Lord of Admiralty) to mobilise the Royal Navy, and Richard Haldane to prep the British army for war - Grey made famous observation - "The lamps are going out all over Europe: we shall not see them lit again in our lifetime" - Following Germany's invasion of Belgium on 4th August, Britain sent an ultimatum to Germany, demanding they withdrew their troops or Britain would declare war - Germany ignored the demand
138
When did Britain declare war on Germany?
4th August 1914
139
How were British interests at stake depending on which stance they took in the war?
- If Germany went to war against France, France would fall within months and Britain would be faced with a German dominated Europe - Max Hastings argues this would be detrimental to British interests and morally questionable given the autocratic and militaristic nature of the German government, so Britain was justified in entering the war - Niall Ferguson believes that Britain could have stayed out of the conflict and the results would not have presented a challenge to British wealth or influence in the world - This was also the initial judgement of Asquith, who said on 24th July 1914 "Happily, there seems to be no reason why we should be anything other than spectators"
140
Who were the key decision makers of Austria-Hungary?
Emperor Franz Josef, Istvan Tisza (Hungarian-PM), Leopold Berchtold (FM) and Franz Conrad von Hotzendorf (Chief of Staff)
141
What were the motives of the decision makers of AH?
- Long-held desire to crush the "troublemaker" Serbia - Believed a lack of action would expose AH's decline as a Great Power - Hotzendorf argued that full mobilisation was needed or AH would be exposed to a Russian attack whilst fighting Serbia - Tisza was initially reluctant to go to war, especially before German support was guaranteed, which slowed down AH's reaction to the assassination - Tisza sought assurances that AH would not seek to conquer Serbia
142
Who were the key decision makers of France?
President Raymond Poincare and Rene Viviani (PM and FM)
143
What were the motives of the key decision makers of France?
- Motivated by a fear of a strong Germany and desire for revanche - Supported Russia according to the terms of the Franco-Russian Alliance (1894); Poincare visited the Tsar during the July Crisis - Poincare failed to persuade the British to declare military support for France and Russia in advance, which he believed would encourage Germany to back down
144
Who were the key decision makers of Germany?
Gottlieb von Jagow (FM), Helmuth von Moltke (Chief of Staff), Theobold von Bethmann Hollweg (Chancellor) and Kaiser Wilhelm II
145
What were the motives of the key decision makers of Germany?
- Initially outraged by the assassination, prompting a promise of full support for AH, while expecting Russia not to intervene in early July - Chiefs of staff wanted a "preventative" war against Russia before it grew too strong - Moltke was keen to show his authority within Germany - Bethmann-Hollweg was convinced Britain would not intervene
146
Who were the key decision makers of Russia?
Ivan Goremykin (PM), Sergey Sazonov (FM), Tsar Nicholas II
147
What were the motives of the key decision makers of Russia?
- Determined not to lose influence over the Balkans by backing down again, as they had done during the Bosnian Crisis - Concern over the strength of the Russian army may have convinced Sazonov to mobilise before the Central Powers - The Tsar - moved by Wilhelm's telegrams and fearful of bearing responsibility for war - favoured partial mobilisation, against AH only, but generals asserted that only general mobilisation was feasible according to existing military plans
148
Who were the key decision makers of Britain?
Edward Grey (FS), David Lloyd George (Chancellor of the Exchequer) and Herbert Asquith (PM)
149
What were the motives of the key decision makers of Britain?
- Few ministers wanted war, but most viewed the crisis in terms of Britain's wider long-term interests, especially the fate of the Empire - Grey was mildly anti-German but he needed the backing of the Cabinet to proceed with any action; in general he hoped to avoid making any commitments - Cabinet was divided over whether intervention against Germany was necessary or desirable: Lloyd George was the most senior minister who opposed intervention - Lloyd George's opposition dropped when Germany invaded Belgium - Defence of Belgian neutrality was an excuse but not actually binding
150
How did the conflict escalate?
Hopes that the AH-Serbia conflict would remain localised in the Balkans were soundly and quickly dashed - it grew into a European war and then involved the overseas empires of the Great Powers, and then Japan and USA joined
151
Who fought who on the Western Front?
British and French forces fought German soldiers
152
Who fought who on the Eastern Front?
The German army fought Russia
153
Who did AH fight?
Its Balkan opponents and from 1915, Italy in the south-east
154
Who joined the war after Britain, France and Germany called upon their imperial forces?
- French Algerians - Sepoys from the British Indian Army - Canadians - West Indians - Australians - New Zealanders
155
How did the imperial powers involve themselves in the conflict?
They shipped their colonial troops to the European theatres of war and the colonies themselves became battlegrounds as the rivalries of the Great Powers were played out on the world stage
156
What was Africa's role in the war?
- Britain's control of South Africa was strategically useful despite the tenuous loyalty of the mixed South African population to the empire - Jan Smuts commanded British South African forces to launch an attack on German South West Africa in September 1914 - By 1916 South African troops had defeated German East Africa
157
What was the Pacific's role in the war?
- Keen to capitalise on the 1902 Anglo-Japanese agreement, Japan declared war on Germany and AH - The war was extended to the Pacific when Japanese forces seized Germany's possessions in the Far-East, including Tsingtao, to the disgruntlement of the Kaiser - By the end of Sept 1914, New Zealand had occupied German Samoa and Australia had invaded part of German New Guinea
158
When did Japan declare war on Germany?
23rd August 1914
159
When did Japan declare war on AH?
25th August 1914
160
Where were the 5 major Middle East campaigns conducted?
- Sinai and Palestine - Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) - Caucasus (between Russia and Turkey) - Persia (modern Iran) - Gallipoli (in Turkey)
161
Who did the Ottoman Empire ally with?
Germany and AH in 1914
162
When did Bulgaria join the Central Powers?
1915
163
What did Bulgaria's entry on the side of AH highlight?
Just how far the Balkan Wars of 1912-13 had reshuffled loyalties within the Balkans - it had once been one of Russia's more loyal client states
164
Who did Romania and Greece ally with?
Britain, France and Russia
165
Why were British and French divisions diverted to the Middle East in 1915?
- In the hope of relieving the stalemate on the Western Front and limiting Turkish interference with oil supplies in Mesopotamia - The British and French were bolstered by troops from their empires, but this was no guarantee of easy victory
166
What happened at Gallipoli in April 1915?
A disastrous attack by the Allies led to devastating losses of Australian and New Zealand troops
167
What led to the calls for a military jihad by the Ottoman Empire?
- Germans had established influence over the Turkish forces under the German commander Liman von Sanders in 1912-13 - This contributed to the Kaiser's self-proclaimed role as Protector of the Turks and his friendship with Muslim Powers
168
When did the Ottoman Empire call for a military jihad against the Triple Entente?
November 1914
169
What is a military jihad?
A holy war declared by Islamic powers in defence of the Muslim region
170
What were the consequences of the calls for a military jihad?
- Posed a severe threat to the British Empire's possessions in the Middle East and perhaps even India too - British Empire soldiers, including a large number of Anglo-Indian troops, fought Turkish soldiers under German command in the first months of the war
171
When did Italy declare their neutrality?
2nd August 1914
172
Why did Italian neutrality cause outrage from Germany and AH?
Though they had anticipated this move as Italy had made no firm gestures of support in the July Crisis, they were still outraged as they believed that Italy was breaking the spirit, if not the actual terms of the Triple Alliance
173
What had the 1882 Triple Alliance said in terms of military support?
- The kind of war that Italy would join to support her allies had to be defensive - As AH had invaded Serbia, Italy could avoid committing itself to military involvement
174
Why did Italy not support AH and Germany?
- They were concerned that AH's intentions in the Balkans were expansionist, which went against their own interests in the region - they hoped to gain Dalmatia, a region on the border with Bosnia - Unbeknown to her official "Allies", Italy had signed a secret pact with France in 1902 which effectively cancelled out her commitments to Germany and AH - Fighting alongside AH appeared counterproductive as the Habsburgs were holding onto land inhabited by Italian speakers which Italy hoped one day to claim (Tyrol and Istria)
175
What was the general feeling in Italian government about entering the war though?
They were increasingly nervous about the possible consequences of non-intervention, particularly after the death of Giuliano in late 1914
176
What did Italy anticipate the outcomes of the war would be if it did not join one of the sides?
- If the Central Powers won, it was likely that they would exercise harsh, or at least unfavourable, treatment of Italy in a peace settlement as it had reneged on its Triple Alliance commitments - If the Allies won, they would be unlikely to grant Italy the territory it coveted around the Mediterranean, specifically the Tyrol and Istria
177
What did the Italian government decide was the best way forward and how did they go about this?
Intervention appeared to be the best strategy - the Italian government began negotiations with both sides in early 1915 hoping to secure the best arrangement to serve Italian interests
178
What did the Central Powers offer Italy?
Some territorial concessions, but AH refused to offer Italy Trentino or Trieste
179
What did the Allied Powers offer Italy?
Territories of Trentino, Trieste, southern Tyrol, Dalmatia and Istria, all of which they anticipated seizing from a defeated Habsburg Empire
180
Which offer did Italy decide to take?
The Allied Powers - the offer was sealed with the Treaty of London
181
When was the Treaty of London signed?
26th April 1915
182
What would the gaining of these new possessions mean for Italy?
It would hold considerable power over the Adriatic Sea
183
When did Italy formally join the Triple Entente Powers?
23rd May 1914
184
When did Italy declare war on AH?
24th May 1914
185
What is the Risorgimento?
The Italian nationalist movement - Risorgimento means "resurgence" or "rising again" in Italian
186
Was Italy's involvement in the war popular amongst its people?
No - especially those in the South, many of whom had little interest in gaining extra land when they lived in poverty already
187
How did the Risorgimento view Italian involvement in the war?
Saw it as a chance to increase Italy's international standing and to realise their dreams of becoming a world power
188
How was Italy's development similar to Germany's?
In 1871, both had only united a collection of smaller states into a cohesive nation and both had domestic problems its leaders hoped could be resolved or at least forgotten temporarily by going to war
189
How many men had served in the Italian army by the end of the war?
Despite the unpopularity of the war among many Italians, 5 million men had served in its army by the end of the war, mostly in atrocious conditions against AH on the mountainsides of the Eastern Alps
190
What were the USA's reasons for remaining neutral at the start of the war?
- Mainstream opinion favoured isolationism - origins of European war = far removed from Americans physically and psychologically - Peace would avoid the cost of American lives and economic instability as a result of war - Interest groups of domestic issues like women's suffrage and the prohibition of alcohol did not want the distraction of war
191
How did non-intervention allow for a huge economic boom for America?
America could trade with both the Allies and the Central Powers
192
How did America create their wartime boom?
- Europe needed large quantities of munitions and necessities for the home front as factory production switched to armaments - American companies filled the gaps in the market - Half of Britain's war budget was spent on American materials - As Britain's chemical industry was in its infancy it relied on US produced chemicals to make explosives having previously gained chemicals from Germany
193
By how much did some American businesses see their profits increase from peacetime?
By six times
194
Why did many Americans question the idea of American neutrality?
- Though the US supplied both the Allies and the Central Powers, the Allies felt more benefit due to Britain's naval blockade of Germany - British ships were not allowing supplies to get through to Germany even if ships carrying them were neutral - Britain was borrowing money directly from America and financial speculators gambled increasingly on Allied victories - currency reserves of Allies ran low so they took out large American loans to buy necessary materials for the war effort. If the Allies lost the war, they were unlikely to be able to repay their debts, so the USA had a huge financial stake in the Allies winning the war
195
Who was Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924)?
Democrat who became President in 1913. Commitment to neutrality secured him public support and led him to win a second term in 1916 with the slogan "He kept us out of the war". He prepared for intervention when Germany resumed unrestricted U-boat campaign. His 14 points programme was a strong influence of the TOV 1919. He died in 1924 after being defeated by Republican Warren Harding in 1920
196
What did the Kaiser do in February 1915?
Frustrated by the success of Britain's naval blockade, he declared that all waters around Britain were a warzone so any ships were liable to be attacked by Germany even if they were neutral
197
How did Germany's use of naval combat shift in 1915?
Despite the drama and expense of the Anglo-German naval race, U-boats (submarines) became Germany's naval weapon of choice, not dreadnoughts. Much of the main German fleet was unable to break the blockade of the numerically superior Royal Navy and stayed close to port on the North Sea coast
198
Why was Bethmann Hollweg concerned about the Kaiser's updated U-boat policy in 1915?
He thought it would weaken German international reputation - sinking merchant vessels without warning may make Germany the "mad dog" in the eyes of the world
199
How was the British naval blockade different to Germany's U-boat policy?
Germany - tried to sink any vessel carrying supplies to Britain Britain - stopped and searched neutral vessels and seized any forbidden goods The British blockade did not affect relations between themselves and the USA negatively, but the German policy was considered underhand and immoral
200
How effective was the British naval blockade?
Very - prompted rationing and near starvation of AH and German home fronts by the end of the war
201
What did Germany believe about unrestricted U-boat warfare and how the USA would react?
Ministers thought that unrestricted submarine warfare would give the USA cause to enter the war, but the Kaiser thought it might be a deterrent for the US as he was aware of increasing American influence in the Pacific and wanted to prove German strength to them, thus it was worth the gamble
202
What happened on 1st May 1915?
The Lusitania, the largest luxury liner in the world with capacity for 2000 passengers, set sail from New York
203
What had the Imperial German Embassy done on 21st April 1915?
They had posted a warning in the New York Times stating that any passengers sailing to Britain, France and Russia did so at their own risk. This was laughed off by the Captain of the Lusitania
204
What happened on 7th May 1915?
As the Lusitania approached the Irish coast, it was sunk by a single torpedo from the German U-boat U-20. 1198 passengers died, 128 of them American, prompting outrage on both sides of the Atlantic
205
Why is it questionable how much emphasis we can place on the significance of the sinking of the Lusitania as a reason for the USA entering WW1?
The sinking occurred 2 years before America's declaration of war
206
What did the sinking of the Lusitania do to opinion amongst Americans on war?
It helped to steer public opinion away from their position of neutrality
207
How did Woodrow Wilson respond to the sinking of the Lusitania?
He sent a threatening message to the German embassy, resulting in the suspension of unrestricted submarine warfare. He would not end America's neutrality, but did begin a "preparedness" programme under which the US Congress approved large-scale ship building in the hope of deterring Germany from further attacks on commercial shipping
208
What is meant by the term "home front"?
The civilian government and people not directly fighting in a war. It is known as a "front" because during the 2 world wars, civilians were under attack from aerial and naval bombardment and often severely affected by naval blockades
209
How had the balance of war shifted by early 1917?
It had begun to tip in the Allies' favour, with the challenge of supplying both the front line and the home front a significant factor. The Allies' financial links with the USA gave them a huge economic advantage in this area
210
What happened when a German U-boat was captured and brought onto British mainland in 1916?
The German crew were shocked by the healthy condition of British people compared with the German people, where long term rationing was taking its toll
211
What is meant by the term "rationing"?
A system by which the government allows citizens a restricted amount of food and goods, usually when the production or supply of a commodity is restricted
212
What happened on 2nd February 1917?
With the differing conditions between British and German civilians in mind, the Kaiser ordered that U-boats would again be permitted to sink merchant ships, perhaps calculating that if the USA had remained neutral thus far, it would continue to do so and thus Germany had little option but to take the risk
213
What is meant by the term "merchant ships"?
Commercial vessels not belonging to a country's military navy; they did not have guns on board so had no means to fight or defend themselves
214
How did Germany carry forward the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917?
The campaign was pursued ruthlessly with the aim of starving the British into submission. The order was made public, pushing Wilson further towards intervention
215
How did Britain respond to the unrestricted submarine warfare 1917?
After a few weeks of heavy losses, Britain blunted the impact of U-boats by introducing the convoy system, by which merchant ships sailed together and were protected by warships
216
Was the use of unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917 a success or a failure?
It was a failure - the Kaiser had failed to impact Britain all that heavily and had angered Wilson
217
What was the final catalyst for America entering the war?
Wilson was already close to preparing the US for intervention, but a telegram intercepted by the British provided the final catalyst - an incitement by the German government to a foreign power to invade the USA was just grounds for entering the war in Wilson's opinion
218
When was the Zimmerman Telegram intercepted?
January 1917
219
What was the Zimmerman Telegram?
The German Foreign Secretary, Arthur Zimmerman, sent the Mexican government a telegram with the proposal that Mexico should invade the USA with the Central Powers and reclaim the land lost to America
220
How did revolution in Russia mean that Wilson could enter the war?
The overthrow of the tsarist autocracy meant that America could now claim that they were fighting for the cause of democracy without the inconvenience of an absolutist ally
221
What happened on 2nd April 1917?
Wilson asked the Congress for a declaration of war against Germany and the vote was almost unanimous
222
When did the USA declare war on Germany?
6th April 1917
