Topic 1 - Great Powers: Britain, Germany, France, Russia and Austria-Hungary, c1890–1900 Flashcards

Question

Why was Britain not a true democracy in 1900?

Answer 1

Suffrage was limited and the Head of State was not elected

Answer 2

Voted an MP to represent their local constituency; in 1900 was limited to wealthier males (around 5.5 million); general elections were mostly held every few years

Answer 3

- The monarchy was limited in power and there was a strong system of representative government. - The Rule of Law ensured that both monarchs and elected representatives had to operate within legal limits; there was also a free press which, though more deferential to authority figures than today, was allowed to criticise policies. - At the turn of the century, newspapers were growing in circulation, which meant that politicians increasingly had to consider the options of a better informed public

Answer 4

Comprised MPs elected by their local constituents

Answer 5

Unelected; could veto or demand revisions to bills before they became law - had the power to amend or reject legislation passed by the House of Commons (though this was restricted in 1911 as a result of their rejection of the 1909 People's Budget) and could serve as Cabinet Ministers or PM; some owed their position to the monarch, though most were hereditary

Answer 6

Unelected; rarely used power to veto bills before they became law; had the power to dismiss PMs - had the power to appoint new Lords on the advice of the PM

Answer 7

Usually chosen via general election as leader of the most popular political party; appointed by the monarch

Answer 8

Responsible for day-to-day government of domestic and foreign affairs

Answer 9

The power to prevent a law being passed

Answer 10

A government's strategy in dealing with other nations

Answer 11

The draft version of an Act of Parliament, often revised before receiving approval

Answer 12

- Produced an increased interest in democracy - Britain changed rapidly, parliament feared bloodshed - Population increased quickly - agricultural and industrial boom underway - People gained more food, better clothing and more access to goods, but were still suffering in slums and harsh factory life - A higher chance of new political ideas spreading as more people lived in towns and cities - Reformers argued that Parliament no longer represented the country - The pressure for democracy increased in early 1800 and politicians favoured small measures of political reform over revolution

Answer 13

- 1st significant change to political system - Extension of franchise - more men could vote - Differences in electoral system between regions removed, making it fairer - The effects of the act were limited as still only a small percentage of men could vote and Southern England could elect more MPs than Northern England and Scotland

Answer 14

- Introduced by Conservatives - Increased electorate to 2.5 million - Benjamin Disraeli (PM) gave working men the vote as he believed that supporting them would make them vote Conservative - this is referred to as the "leap in the dark" - This didn't balance political power as middle classes were still dominant

Answer 15

- Dealt with electoral corruption by allowing secret ballots - Voting became more of a political act than a social occasion - Hustings replaced with polling booths - Most effective in large constituencies

Answer 16

- Ballot Act did not remove bribery - Established how much and on what electoral expenditure could be spent - Allegations of illegal acts decreased, as did electoral expenditure - However, corruption did not die out completely

Answer 17

- Recognised that county and borough voters deserved the same political rights - As a result, a uniform franchise was produced - Plural voting was still permitted in certain circumstances - 2/3 men over 21 could now vote, but this was only 18% of the population, so it was still low

Answer 18

- Meant that 5.5 million people could now vote - They were all male and had to be a homeowner or pay £10+ in rent per year - Voting was mainly dominated by middle and upper classes but some skilled workers could vote too - Democracy was spreading but women and some men still couldn't vote, and the House of Lords wasn't elected

Answer 19

- Growing towns were given the right to send more MPs to Parliament - 142 seats were redistributed - dominance of Southern England ended - Scotland's representation increased to 72 seats

Answer 20

- The Head of State (monarch) was still not elected - Suffrage was still limited but there was now a form of representative government as people could elect representatives to Parliament - Rule of law - everyone, including the government, had to obey the laws - There was free press - newspapers criticised the government (increased circulation) and by 1900, literacy rates had increased (which increased amount of new publications)

Answer 21

- Queen Victoria had Royal Prerogatives exercised by government and these were answerable to Parliament - The monarch was officially the commander in chief of the army and navy, but in actual fact, the PM and his cabinet dealt with foreign policy - The PM was appointed by the monarch, usually the leader of the winning party at a General Election with confidence of Parliament - The PM was responsible for domestic and foreign policies and guiding legislation through the Commons and Lords

Answer 22

- The max length of Parliament was 7 years, set in 1716 - General Elections were usually called by the PM - Voters vote for their local MP in their constituency and the party with the most MPs elected usually forms government - The Houses of Lords and Commons approve a bill before it is sent to the monarch for Royal Assent

Answer 23

- The Conservatives and Liberals were the 2 main political parties - In 1906, the Liberals won the General Election by a landslide with 397 MPs - In 1909 the Liberal government announced a radical budget called the "People's Budget" to introduce a new system of social reforms, such as Old Age Pensions - The Conservative dominated House of Lords rejected this

Answer 24

Passed the Parliament Act 1911 which prevented the Lords rejecting an act which had been passed in the House of Commons more than 3 times

Answer 25

The French Revolution and First Republic, followed by the first Empire under Napoleon Bonaparte

Answer 26

Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated at Waterloo

Answer 27

There were 3 kings - Louis XVIII, Charles X and Louis Philippe

Answer 28

The Second Republic is formed

Answer 29

The Second Empire under Napoleon III

Answer 30

Defeated by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War

Answer 31

The Third Republic was formed

Answer 32

- The Parliamentary Republic was often unstable and constantly seeking legitimacy, but found home in the centre of late 1870s revolutionary and democratic France - The government enacted legislation to solidify the common identity of French people, including compulsory schooling, centralised curricula, civicised education and mandatory military service - They had central control of Parisian media and government info - "The Affair" brought historical identity to the Republic

Answer 33

- Was fought by France and the Prussian dominated North German Confederation - Emperor Leopold was heavily influenced by his military commanders, e.g. Bismarck - The French Emperor, Napoleon III was surrounded and defeated at the Battle of Sedan by the Prussian army, who had better commanders and usage of railway lines to mobilise troops than the French - The people of Paris declared a revolution and a new Third Republic, which triggered the siege of Paris

Answer 34

- The French had to make reparations to Germany - The NGC was unified and remaining Southern German States formed the German Empire - Germany took control of the border regions between Alsace and Lorraine, which seeded great bitterness and mistrust for Germans in France as well as great fear of any further invasions. This led to increased military spending and development of more advanced weaponry in France

Answer 35

- France was a republic again by 1870, which meant that there was no monarch - The President was the Head of State and was elected by the French National Assembly every 7 years - The President had executive powers - he could propose laws, appoint ministers and call election to the Chamber of Deputies - He was the Commander in Chief of the armed forces and in charge of foreign affairs

Answer 36

The French National Assembly (Parliament) had two chambers: - The Senate - 1/3 of members were in office for life and 2/3 were elected every 9 years by the electoral college - The Chamber of Deputies - Elected every 4 years by the universal male suffrage

Answer 37

An elected body voting on behalf of a larger group of voters

Answer 38

- General Georges Boulanger was a popular figure capturing the imagination of French press - He gained army support when he reorganised the military as Minister of War, and received business support when he led troops to put an end to worker strikes - The agrarian poor were enchanted by him and saw him as a hero, the preeminent French Patriot - In 1889, he used his popularity to advance politically - He hoped to establish a dictatorship by election to the Presidency by mass mandate - Through skilful manipulation of media and popular symbols, he became associated with patriotism, military victory, honour, constitutional reform, democracy, social welfare and a host of policies giving each constituent group a reason to vote for him - Boulanger amassed a large enough group to scare the Third Republic, but failed to gain the support he needed - His effort failed when he lost the election and he committed suicide in 1891

Answer 39

- 1894 - Alfred Dreyfus, Alsatian Jewish Army Officer, accused of passing French military secrets to Germans and convicted of treason - Trial provided an outlet for virulent French Xenophobia and antisemitism - Sentenced to exile in Devil's Island, but he maintained his innocence in the face of a French public captivated by scare tactics from the radical right wing - Eventually, critical evidence in his conviction was proven to have been forged and fabricated, splitting the country into two camps: - Pro-Dreyfusards - supported his innocence and were generally supporters of the Third Republic - Anti-Dreyfusards - maintained his guilt in the name of French honour, national integrity and racial purity - generally conservatives and antisemites - The country became organised into leagues of small groups in the name of their position on "The Affair", including intellectuals, soldiers, clerics and leftists - Dreyfus was exonerated in the press and court after evidence showed that one of his colleagues had instead leaked the secrets and used Dreyfus as a scapegoat because he was Jewish

Answer 40

- Formed the German Empire - Otto von Bismarck, Minister-President of Prussia, played a key role - A new constitution was created in 1871, which enshrined the power of the Chancellor and Kaiser and limited the power of the Reichstag

Answer 41

- Surprisingly liberal - Approval for laws needed by both upper and lower houses of Parliament as well as the Kaiser, the Chancellor and the ministers - It had the largest franchise in Europe - all men over 25 could vote for members of the Reichstag, who represented the country - Members of the Bundesrat - local representation - were not elected and were instead appointed and dismissed by the Kaiser

Answer 42

- Chancellor from 1871-1890 and formerly the Prussian President - He fit the criteria for a Chancellor of the united German Empire - he was a keen political operative who understood the geopolitics of modern Europe and worked to change the balance of power to be in Germany's favour - Used Realpolitik, which was concerned with looking for the most pragmatic, realistic solution to Germany's problems, focusing less on new liberal ideas and more on gaining and exploiting power Famous "iron and blood" speech - "It is not by speeches and majority resolutions that the great questions of time are decided... but by iron and blood"

Answer 43

- German anti-church campaign aiming to eliminate Catholics as Bismarck thought they could never maintain loyalty to the state truly due to their higher loyalty to Rome - Removed priests from state service, restricted religious education, elevated civil marriage and arrested and expelled defiant priests and bishops

Answer 44

- Unsuccessful - inspired widespread concern over the social fabric of the new state, allowing the Catholic centre party to rally the Catholic vote and other supporters to oppose Bismarck's policies - Support from other groups, like Protestants, for the Catholics led to the abandonment of the policy

Answer 45

- Used a carrot and stick policy - Stick = he increased the powers of the police so they could harass workers' groups and unions and break up political meetings - Carrot = new social policies introduced, such as pensions, insurance for injured workers and sickness and disability benefits

Answer 46

- Wilhelm I (1871-1888) - Frederick III (1888) - Wilhelm II (1888-1918)

Answer 47

- He wanted to exert constitutional powers, which put him in conflict with Bismarck, who had hoped to guide the young Kaiser - Disputes over domestic and foreign policy led to Bismarck's resignation as chancellor and Wilhelm II took a more direct role in government, stating "I alone decide" - The Kaiser could now declare war, make peace, conclude treaties and alliances, propose laws, appoint officials (e.g. chancellor) and convene the Bundesrat and the Reichstag

Answer 48

A set of rules on how a country should be governed. A constitutional monarch has their power limited by a constitution

Answer 49

A system of government by which all power is concentrated in the hands of the ruler and officials whom they appoint. Absolute monarchies are also autocracies

Answer 50

Policies which demonstrate a negative response to change

Answer 51

They often meant that there were many revolts/rebellions since there were no legal means to remove a ruler, little distribution of power with much of it being owned or controlled by the ruler, and citizens often being oppressed

Answer 52

- It had been ruled by the Romanov dynasty since 1613 - Russia had not seen any of it's monarch's power transferred to representatives and parliaments as with other monarchies

Answer 53

- Tsar was Emperor and Autocrat of all Russians - Appointed a council of 10 ministers - Under the Tsar and ministers were 12 ranks of civil servant - Russia was the most populous country in Europe by 1900 - 128 million citizens - The Tsar had close control of the Russian Orthodox Church and appointed the procurator - Nicholas I was Tsar until 1855, when he died of pneumonia

Answer 54

- Began when Tsar Alexander II came to rule - He passed significant reforms in Russia in the mid 19th century - Russia was still a feudal society - Freedom was granted to all of Russia's surfs in 1861 - He allowed the creation of local/rural councils (zemstva) - district provincial councils

Answer 55

- Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 - Alexander III and Nicholas II rolled back the reforms and returned to a strict autocracy

Answer 56

He took strong action against opposition groups after his father's assassination, and his reign was, though reactionary, relatively stable. He steered a careful path in foreign policy. Limited power of zemstva and introduced "Land Captains" into the countryside to enforce law and order, and they could override local elections and disregard the decisions of the zemstva. He relied on repression to control revolutionary groups and extended the powers of the police to be able to search, arrest, question, imprison or exile those who committed crimes and were perceived to do so

Answer 57

He had little interest in the actual business of ruling Russia, but was determined not to give up any of his power. He failed to address domestic issues and suffered a humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) and this led to the first Russian revolution in 1905

Answer 58

Called the Okhrana - responsible for security and investigation, intercepting mail and checking up on activities in factories, universities, the army and the state, detaining suspects and resorting to torture and executions

Answer 59

- Dual monarchy - Franz Josef was the dual monarch (1848-1916) - 2 countries ruled by same Emperor from 1867 and shared foreign and defence policy - Separate parliaments, so domestic laws quite different between 2 countries - Josef possessed a lot of power in both states, such as declaring war, dismissing parliaments and appointing ministers - Josef was known for being conservative and opposing reform - They had an imperial government to discuss joint issues, consisting of the Emperor, the PMs of the countries, 3 ministers, the aristocracy and the military - Came about as a result of the 1867 Ausgleich

Answer 60

Rule of Austria and Hungary by a single monarch under whom the two states had equal political status

Answer 61

German for "agreement" or "compromise" - the Ausgleich of 1867 was the result of Hungarian attempts to win independence from the Habsburg Empire in 1848-49

Answer 62

- Head of Government = Minister-President - Legislative body = imperial council, consisting of the hereditary House of Lords and the elected House of Deputies, who had 425 representatives in 1896 - Franchise was extended, but only 6% could vote - Laws had to be passed by both houses and approved by the Emperor

Answer 63

- Parliament = diet, consisting of the unelected House of Magnates and the elected House of Representatives - Only 6% could vote based on property ownership, so working classes and smaller nationalities were underrepresented

Answer 64

Britain passed the Naval Defence Act

Answer 65

Witte became Russian Finance Minister and oversaw rapid industrialisation

Answer 66

The Reichstag votes to increase the size of the German army

Answer 67

Germany passes the first Naval Law

Answer 68

A downturn in economic activity, causing nations' economies to shrink. This leads to large scale unemployment, and often a reduction in trade

Answer 69

The policy creating and expanding an empire, or the desire to do so

Answer 70

Workers' organisations which campaign for better pay and conditions

Answer 71

A policy designed to protect domestic businesses from foreign competition by imposing a duty/tariff

Answer 72

A peasant commune

Answer 73

A belief or system where the military is exalted and its needs and considerations are given extensive importance or priority - Alfred Vagts, a German historian who served in WW1 defined it as the "domination of the military man over the civilian an undue preponderance of military demands, an emphasis on military considerations" - In militaristic nations, generals and admirals often act as de facto government ministers or officials, advising political leaders and influencing domestic policy. Not surprisingly, this leads to significant increases in defence and arms spending

Answer 74

- Military power is considered a measure of national and imperial strength - A powerful state needed a powerful military to protect its interests and support its policies - War was avoided where possible, but it could also be used to advance a nation's political or economic interests - Governments and leaders who failed to maintain armies and navies to protect the national interest were considered weak or incompetent - Carl von Clausewitz wrote in 1832 that war was a "continuation of policy by other means". Politics and military power became inseparable, much like politics and economic management today

Answer 75

Due to having a large empire, Britain invested heavily in its navy in order to protect trade across the globe The British applied the "two power standard", which suggested that the Royal Navy should be bigger than the next two navies combined To maintain her advantage, Britain passed the Naval Defence Act 1889

Answer 76

Increased British naval spending to £21.5 million Allowed for 10 battleship, 42 cruisers and 18 torpedo gunboats to be built

Answer 77

- Britain pioneered the Industrial Revolution and the building of railways - Britain was also an imperial power with a large empire and therefore got access to large supplies of raw materials - However, other countries had also built empires and were challenging Britain's domination - Another factor in Britain's relative industrial decline was its failure to embrace new technologies like automobiles and chemicals, which the USA and Germany were leading in

Answer 78

- Represented people who worked in specific industries/trades, e.g. coal miners - During the late 1800s, unions became more militant and more likely to take strike action - This could affect industrial production if strikes became widespread

Answer 79

By 1910 British exports had fallen to 10% share in the world, half of that of Germany and a quarter of the USA British industrialists wanted the government to end free trade and introduce tariffs (taxes on imported goods) to protect Britain's trade with the empire from cheaper foreign competition

Answer 80

British attitudes to the military began to transform starkly during the 1800s - Britons had previously considered armies and navies a necessary evil - Their ranks were filled with the dregs of the lower classes, their officers were often failed aristocrats and ne'er do wells

Answer 81

- Soldiering was seen as a more noble vocation and a selfless act of service to one's country - Military power considered essential for maintaining Britain's imperial and trade interests - The Royal Navy was engaged in protecting shipping, trade routes and colonial ports as the world's largest naval force - British land forces kept order and imposed imperial policies in India, Africa, Asia and the Pacific - Whether serving in Crimea or the distant colonies, British officers were hailed as gentlemen and sterling leaders - Enlisted men were well drilled, resolute and ready to make the ultimate sacrifice for King and country - Soldiers were presented as heroes in Tennyson's 1854 poem "The Charge of the Light Brigade" - Cheap novels about foreign wars and battles became widespread

Answer 82

- They believed it would be an easy victory, fighting against "disorganised farmers" - The Boer forces proved that a smaller force with knowledge of the land and modern weapons could stand up to a much larger force - British soldiers had ill suited equipment and poor camp conditions - A recruiting drive to increase numbers failed as half of the volunteers were rejected due to health reasons

Answer 83

- Following the British withdrawal from South Africa, the public demanded an expansion in the army and better training for soldiers - The British army increased in size to 730,000 volunteers by 1914 with no conscription - 99,000 of the 600,000 British Imperial forces were killed, wounded or missing

Answer 84

6,000 of the 62,400 Boer forces were lost 24,000 of the Boer forces were captured

Answer 85

Bitter Enders - 21,000 Civilian Casualties - 46,000 Total Cost - £211,000,000

Answer 86

- Boosted industrial growth and railway construction - Coal production, iron ore mining and foreign investment spiked - The government adopted policies to encourage industrial growth while unification removed the border tariffs and trade duties which had existed before 1871 - German banks formed and grew quickly, providing credit and investment for new ventures

Answer 87

- The population was large and rapidly growing, increasing from 40 million in 1880 to 58.5 million in 1910, and so Germany could meet the Labour needs of industrialisation - In 1900 German steel production exceeded Britain's and was second only to the US - Agricultural production did not grow in line with the industrial sector, but remained steady and efficient, meeting Germany's food needs

Answer 88

- Germany's new colonies in Asia and Africa gave access to more raw materials - Bismarck introduced tariffs in 1878 which protected German goods, especially agricultural, against cheap foreign imports - Taxes on imports were also a source of income for the German government

Answer 89

COAL: IRON: STEEL: OVERALL: B 58% 12% 41% 58.6% G 68% 87% 207% 213%

Answer 90

- Electrical and chemical industries were on the rise, e.g. Siemens and AEG - Cable exports increased from £150,000 in 1891 to £2,500,000 in 1908 - The numbers of people employed in the electrical industry increased from 26,000 in 1895 to 107,000 in 1907

Answer 91

- Modern machinery and better fertilisers produced by the chemical industry helped to increase agricultural production - More efficient processing techniques were used - More than 4 million acres were brought under cultivation for the first time in 1880-1900 - However, by 1912, Germany was not self-sufficient in animal products

Answer 92

- Economic transformation began as a response to their defeat in the Crimean war - A railway building programme began and small scale development of factories. Some were state owned, producing armaments, and others were foreign owned - By 1881, Russian economic development lagged well behind Western Europe, a huge gulf in potential given its huge supplies of natural resources and man power - In the reign of Alexander III, industrial development took off - The Russian rail network expanded hugely and the state bought private companies to create rapid construction - The heavy industry was expanding, reorganising factories and concentrating industrial labour - Inhibitors of progress persisted - textiles dominated rather than heavy industry and agricultural reforms were well overdue - Ukrainian coal and oil was exploited to Russian steel, petroleum and chemical production could grow - Russia fell into debt

Answer 93

- Progress was steady but slow - A new source of iron ore was discovered, so the heavy industry was maintained on a small scale - It had a relatively small industrial workforce - most worked on the land - In 1892 the Méline Tariff was imposed, introducing protective tariffs on all industrial and agricultural imports, which contributed to France's self sufficiency - With the exception of the motor industry, France lagged well behind in "new" industries

Answer 94

- Had a strong agricultural sector and good access to resources - Slow to modernise its economic growth and so was stunted - A small player in world trade and government debt was on the rise - Output of agriculture forests and fisheries rose but cheap American crops threatened this - Development of industry was hampered by over focus on land

Answer 95

- Most formidable power in terms of army - A strong economy allowed for high military spending - High population allowed for more potential soldiers - Prussia had a strong tradition of military strength - Pride in the German army was high - Defeat of France in 1870 provided propaganda to glorify the German army - The Prussian officer class had a large amount of influence on government policy - Wilhelm II was very competitive - keen interest in military, first speech addressed to army - Professional core of army allowed to expand - Leo von Caprivi introduced the Military Bill 1893 to increase the size of the army by 84,000 soldiers

Answer 96

- All great powers sans Britain had a policy of conscription in 1900 - Russia had access to millions of troops, professional soldiers and reservists - They initially had 135.6 million soldiers, and with conscription, this increased to 1,162,000 - the largest of all the great powers, but with a poor reputation - Soldiers' training was inferior and recruits were peasants with poor living conditions, poor health and poor fitness - Russia could not afford to equip its soldiers well

Answer 97

- France lacked security in its cultures and societies, alike to AH, inhibiting possible improvements to training and efficiency There were disagreements in the French military circles about what the army was actually for: - Left wingers thought it was for the people and self defence only - Conservatives wanted a professional army alike to Germany's

Answer 98

- The Habsburg Empire believed that the army was a focus for rivalry between two states and a preserve for German speaking Austrians - They sought to emulate the Prussian army's success - There was a fierce political debate on the role of Hungarians in the army

Answer 99

British, French, and Russians questioned whether the income generated from imperial trade was worth the cost of maintaining control over their colonies, however, this attitude changed significantly after 1870 as the countries scrambled for Africa and China, creating considerable tension

Answer 100

Britain - to maintain her empire France and Germany - to increase their empires Russia - to expand her influence in three different areas

Answer 101

Secretary of State for the Colonies between 1895 and 1903 - a passionate believer in British imperialism and tariff reform, commanding much influence. He fiercely defended Britain's involvement in the Second Boer war but failed to prevent his Liberal Unionist Party's defeat in the 1906 general election

Answer 102

Imperialism gave great advantages by means of trading wealth, and it gave the mother country political influence overseas and strategically important military bases

Answer 103

They had the largest empire, and their status as an imperial power had been unchallenged for decades, but by the 19th century, other powers envied Britain's empire prestige

Answer 104

In 1880, Europe controlled 10% of Africa, but by 1900, they controlled 90% of it

Answer 105

1870s depression caused European businesses to seek new or cheaper raw materials from overseas

Answer 106

The Ottoman Empire was now in decline, and it contained North African regions on the Mediterranean coast. French and British rivalry over influence in Egypt erupted, coming to a crisis point in 1882 when British forces invaded Egypt to crush unrest there. Egypt contained the Suez Canal, which was hugely important for world trade

Answer 107

King Leopold of Belgium initiated a new tactic of staking claims to overseas territory in the Congo, and after making commercial treaties with the tribal chiefs, the Belgians then claimed to have established an influence over the region. This prompted France, Britain, Portugal and Germany to dispute Belgium's claims

Answer 108

The Berlin Conference

Answer 109

A small proportion had been colonised in 1878, but in the following 6 years, there were disputes over East and West Africa and the Congo

Answer 110

November 1884 - February 1885

Answer 111

Representatives of Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, AH, and Italy

Answer 112

The division of territories already disputed and the process by which a country could stake its claim over a country in the future

Answer 113

The principle of "effective occupation" - countries had to already have an established physical presence in the prospective colony before they could claim it

Answer 114

There were no Africans at the conference, and only two of the delegates had actually been in Africa

Answer 115

Her dominance over the continent as Africa became "up for grabs". Much of Britain's African Empire had been informal - it consisted of trade routes and trading posts rather than official protectorates

Answer 116

The scramble for territory in Africa did not end - European control over it tightened. The powers hurried to make good on their claims after the accepted rules of colonisation had been agreed. Helped to prevent a European war breaking out over colonies.

Answer 117

Its informal empire was formalised and extended - it now included Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, British East Africa, Rhodesia and much of South Africa as colonial possessions

Answer 118

Secured a large amount of territory around the Sahara Desert including important trading posts in Morocco, the Ivory Coast, and the French Congo

Answer 119

Not yet in the thralls of Weltpolitik, they secured the smaller total area of the Cameroons, German South West Africa, Togoland, and German East Africa

Answer 120

It gained Italian Somaliland and Eritrea, but was humiliated by its failed attempt to conquer Abyssinia in 1895-6 when Italian forces were defeated at the Battle of Adwa. This is the only 19th century example of an African state defeating a European colonising force

Answer 121

There were new borders for the Great Powers, which always comes with new potential for disputes over them. Perceived expansion near to another country's colony often elicited huge concern and outraged condemnation by imperial rivals. Businessmen often raised concerns about competition and disruption to trading routes while politicians often stressed the potential loss of prestige by allowing such action to go unchallenged

Answer 122

Portugal had a sphere of influence there which was challenged by the British - Zanzibar, which was a port further up the African coast, was a British protectorate, and the British wanted greater influence in Mozambique. Lord Salisbury wrote to Queen Victoria stating that if Portugal interfered with British interests in the region, then a naval force would be gathered at Zanzibar to strike the Portuguese. The dispute ended peacefully, but threats were issued

Answer 123

Britain and France both wanted to consolidate their African colonies - Britain wanted to secure its line of territory from South Africa to Egypt through a railway line planned by Cecil Rhodes to facilitate trade and stamp British influence on the area, whereas France aimed to expand its influence eastwards from its colonies in West and Central Africa. The two policies clashed in 1898 in Sudan, with both sides sending troops to protect their claims, meeting in the town of Fashoda on the River Nile, but they did not engage in combat. The French realised that Britain's superior navy would ensure a British victory, and so both sides backed down. It marked the last major colonial clash between Britain and France

Answer 124

Britain and France agreed on the boundaries of each other's spheres of influence in the Mozambique region

Answer 125

Described Germany's desire to become an international power "Nothing must henceforth be settled in the world without the intervention of Germany and the German Kaiser" - Kaiser Wilhelm II 1896 "We don't want to put anyone else in the shade, but we too demand a place in the sun" - Von Bulow, German FM 1897

Answer 126

The tension had been increasing for decades - the Boer leaders resented the encroaching British influence in the region and were determined to resist Britain's attempts to unify the South African region as one colony. The independent republics in South Africa were a stumbling block to British imperial ambitions

Answer 127

The descendants of the Dutch who had settled in South Africa as farmers in the eighteenth century

Answer 128

Britain was forced to recognise the independence of the Boers, and the Boers continued to refuse any foreign political influence in their states.

Answer 129

Gold could transform the economy of the republic and make it more likely to resist future colonisation

Answer 130

A British businessman who had become PM of Cape Colony in 1890. He was determined to help the British realise their aim of extending control over all of South Africa

Answer 131

Paul Kruger, President of the Transvaal, and his government restricted the voting rights of uitlanders, many of whom were British

Answer 132

Foreigners who had travelled to the Transvaal region to take advantage of the gold discovery

Answer 133

A uitlander uprising known as the Jameson Raid planned by Rhodes and Chamberlain. It only succeeded in convincing the Boers that their independence was seriously under threat

Answer 134

The Transvaal was refusing to improve conditions for uitlanders, and Britain expected its superior military resources to secure a quick and easy victory

Answer 135

The Boers resisted British attacks with their guerrilla tactics

Answer 136

Fighting involving "undercover" methods of attacking a stronger enemy - guerrillas often set traps and used ambush tactics rather than engaging their opponents using traditional methods to give them a greater chance of victory

Answer 137

Concentration camps were used to contain Boer civilians, however this drew condemnation from other European powers

Answer 138

He capitalised on the British difficulties in the Boer region by sending a message to Paul Kruger following the Jameson Raid - it became known as the Kruger telegram, congratulating the president on resisting British ambitions in South Africa, making his support for the Boers very clear, to the great irritation of London

Answer 139

The power of the Ottoman Turks had declined and individual nations like Greece, Serbia and Montenegro had achieved their independence by 1900

Answer 140

AH was already deeply concerned about the increase in nationalism within its empire an viewed the new independence of the Balkan states as a threat. Emperor Franz Josef ruled over a wide range of ethnicities, many of whom wanted independence and would look to the Balkan states which had achieved this for inspiration. In the late 19th century, AH's policy was to maintain friendly relations with the Balkan neighbours

Answer 141

Russia saw a useful opportunity to increase its international political influence. Ethnicity was a vital factor as the majority of Russians were Slavs, as were many Balkan peoples. Russia hoped to set up the newly independent Balkan states as client states to ensure their long term loyalty to Russia

Answer 142

Smaller nations given economic, political and often military assistance by larger countries in return for their loyalty

Answer 143

Russia imposed the harsh Treaty of San Stefano on the Turks, which aimed to significantly increase Russian territory and influence in the Balkans

Answer 144

The other powers, especially AH, viewed the Treaty as unacceptable, and so an international congress was arranged in Berlin to limit Russia's gains

Answer 145

It averted conflict between Russia and AH in the late 19th century, but failed to produce a long term solution.

Answer 146

Russian ministers were aggrieved that the Treaty of Berlin allowed AH to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, an area which was home to many Slavs. The Russians were not alone in their annoyance at this - Slav nationalists had wanted the region to become a part of Serbia

Answer 147

Bulgaria had been Russia's most important client state after the Treaty of Berlin, but in 1885, Bulgarians showed their resentment for the terms of the treaty and it's client state status. Prince Alexander of Bulgaria united with Eastern Rumelia and forced Russian officials to leave, which infuriated Tsar Alexander III of Russia, who forced Prince Alexander to abdicate.

Answer 148

AH, Germany and Britain now viewed a strong Bulgaria as a buffer against further Russian expansion in the Balkans, however, Russia realised it needed to create good relations with another Balkan state so its influence didn't die out completely in the region

Answer 149

Serbia, which was under Austrian "protection" officially

Answer 150

Despite its internal problems, Russia was committed to a policy of expansionism

Answer 151

Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia

Answer 152

Sufficient farmland - known as "land hunger" - made the condition of peasants miserable and hindered Russian economic development

Answer 153

Successive tsars sought to expand their territory into Central Asia, their influence into the Balkans, and to establish secure trading posts in the Far East to gain access to the Straits to facilitate trade

Answer 154

A long-running problem by 1890 - termed the "Great Game", sparking numerous international crises and sometimes outright conflict in 19th Century. Russia expanded towards Afghanistan and Britain increased its hold on the Indian subcontinent, reducing the gap between the spheres of influence of the two powers. Britain perceived Russian ambitions in Central Asia as a threat to India, Britain's most important colony, and it had hoped Afghanistan would act as a buffer state.

Answer 155

The Anglo-Afghan war 1878-80 was sparked when Russia sent diplomats to Kabul and the Afghan ruler Sher Ali refused to let Britain send their own diplomatic mission. The war ended to the advantage of Britain

Answer 156

Russian coastline lay mostly on the Arctic Sea, meaning that most of her shipping and trading routes were frozen for large portions of the year

Answer 157

Russia's desire to secure a warm water port in the Turkish Straits

Answer 158

The Black Sea clauses agreed at the Treaty of Paris 1856

Answer 159

No warships of any navy could use the Black Sea in peacetime, dashing Russia's plans to build an impressive naval fleet there, however, they continued to pursue this objective, albeit more cautiously

Answer 160

Warships could now sail through the straits of the Dardanelles and Bosphorus but only if Turkish independence was threatened. The Russians continued to push for futher revisions

Answer 161

Opportunities for Russia to secure the access to the Eastern Mediterranean, however, this raised the suspicions of AH as it affected the Balkan region, and Britain perceived it as a threat to its Mediterranean trade and security of its route to India via the Suez canal

Answer 162

Britain, Italy, AH and Spain signed a series of agreements called the Mediterranean Treaties to protect the existing status quo in the Mediterranean Sea

Answer 163

Limited Russia's hopes for greater influence over the Balkans by supporting the survival of the Ottoman Empire, and prevented Russia gaining control of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles once again

Answer 164

Turkey and its colonies, including most of the Balkan States, African regions on the Mediterranean coast and territory in the Middle East, e.g. Iraq, Iran and Syria. Ruled over peoples of different religions, languages and ethnicities and was once a formidable power, at its peak in the 16th century

Answer 165

Turkish control of Europe was concentrated in Europe, but a gradual erosion of influence there had happened in the 1800s. The Empire shrank and internal problems grew serious, becoming known as the "sick man of Europe" according to Tsar Nicholas I in 1853

Answer 166

The statesmen of the Great Powers deliberated over the consequences of an increasingly likely break up of the Ottoman Empire

Answer 167

Russo-AH rivalry in the Balkans and its determination to disturb European peace and the weakening of Turkish authority through Balkan nationalism - Greece overthrew Ottoman rule and became independent in 1830, and the Treaty of Berlin recognised Serbian and Montenegrin independence

Answer 168

Willing to expedite the Ottoman Empire's decline - France seized Algeria in 1848 and Tunisia in 1881, Cyprus became a British protectorate under the ToB, and in 1882 Britain occupied Egypt

Answer 169

Turkey had lost large amounts of African territories, with only the northern coast of Libya still under its control. There were many sources of tension between the Great Powers but they had demonstrated avoidance of war when imperial rivalries arose

Answer 170

The idea that the balance of power in Europe had been effectively maintained on the most part, with large scale wars being prevented by diplomacy - a period of relative harmony whereby representatives of each Great Power met whenever potential conflict arose - a looser form of the Congress System introduced in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars

Answer 171

Splendid Isolation - remaining aloof from foreign affairs in Europe; it was viewed as splendid by the British ministers as it avoided disadvantageous agreements with other countries and emphasised the strength of the British Empire

Answer 172

When a risk was presented to the balance of power - this grew with the creation and development of the German Empire

Answer 173

Anglo-Russian tension was well established, disputes over colonial possessions frequently threatened peaceful relations between Britain and the other powers in 1890, and the 1898 Fashoda Incident emphasised the increasing vulnerability of British dominance overseas

Answer 174

Bismarck wanted to isolate France diplomatically following the Franco-Prussian war, and this was successful way into the 1890s

Answer 175

Germany's plan of diplomatic French isolation was successful as France were not concerned with foreign policy due to the distractions of the problems of the Third Republic. They also needed to ensure that France recovered economically from the Franco-Prussian conflict. However, at the end of the 19th century, France sought suitable allies, initially believing that Russia and Britain would each require guarantees of support against the other before they could enter into a formal agreement. Germany was even considered as a potential ally, especially as the immediate consequences of the Franco-Prussian war and the revanchism stirred by the Alsace-Lorraine takeover faded from French memory. However, a committed minority of politicians refused to countenance an understanding with Germany as it would entail a formal renunciation of France's claims to Alsace-Lorraine

Answer 176

The government established in France after the fall of Napoleon III in September 1870 while the Franco-Prussian war was still being fought. The Third Republic ended in 1940 following the Nazi invasion of France

Answer 177

Stems from the French word for "revenge" - a policy that aimed to overturn the losses to French territory incurred as a result of the Franco-Prussian war

Answer 178

Britain and France had been imperial rivals for two centuries and their colonial ambitions had clashed in Canada, India and the African continent.

Answer 179

It had been sparked by nationalist disorders in Egypt in 1882, and it prevented a French understanding with Britain for several years. The Suez Canal in Egypt, a project financed jointly by Britain and France, was completed in 1869, but was threatened in 1882 by a nationalist uprising. Britain was immediately concerned as the Suez Canal was strategically vital for commerce, and so they sent troops to invade and occupy Egypt in August, creating a high potential for actual conflict between France and Britain.

Answer 180

June 1882 - Anglo-French Convention confirmed the territorial boundaries of each empire in West Africa Fashoda Incident - resulted in the formal agreement recognising the British and French spheres of influence in the north-east

Answer 181

The royal families of the two powers were closely related, their cultures shared many similarities, and both were suspicious of France

Answer 182

Though Britain had viewed Russia and France as the greatest threats to its imperial superiority for much of the 19th century, the accession of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II and the departure of Bismarck and the demise of the Bismarckian system gradually worsened Anglo-German relations

Answer 183

Attempted to maintain the balance of power in Europe - Bismarck knew that other powers would view the unified Germany as a threat to the balance of power after 1871, so he stated that Germany had no further plans for European expansion. He developed a complex system of alliances called the "Bismarckian system" so it appeared that the European balance of power was being maintained while Germany was unchallenged in its economic developments. He also tried to keep France isolated from friendly alliances and to limit the potential for conflict between AH and Russia over the Balkans

Answer 184

A rival during the "scramble for Africa", and though Bismarck wanted to avoid potential conflict with Britain in Europe, he was not so careful about overseas commercial interests, collaborating with the French in the 1880s against British interests in West Africa, the Congo and South West Africa.

Answer 185

Two partition treaties were formed in 1885 and 1890 to resolve Anglo-German disputes in Zanzibar, with Germany creating a protectorate of German East Africa and Britain creating a protectorate of Zanzibar, calming relations between the powers

Answer 186

German Foreign Secretary for 3 years prior to becoming Chancellor in 1900. Spoke several languages, was a great debater, and was ruthless in his treatment of his rivals. Resigned in 1909 over a tax debate in the Reichstag, but remained in Wilhelm's favour

Answer 187

That they risked British hostility with the advent of Weltpolitik and the beginning of the Anglo-German naval race

Answer 188

They sought an understanding with Britain which would secure a peaceful coexistence between the two powers while allowing Germany to still seek imperial greatness

Answer 189

Bernhard von Bulow - though he did so clumsily. He was the German FS, and was often complacent in his dealings with the British, hoping that the continued imperial rivalry with France would drive Britain into Germany's arms.

Answer 190

News of the Incident was welcomed by Bulow, who believed that Britain would abandon its Splendid Isolation and enter into an alliance with Germany, balancing out the threat of encirclement posed by the 1894 Franco-Russian Agreement. Given the long term nature of Anglo-French rivalry exacerbated by the Scramble for Africa, the Germans had reason to be optimistic, particularly as France had allied with Russia, Britain's other imperial rival

Answer 191

The Dual Alliance was anti-Russian in nature, and so following a flare up of tension in the Balkans in the 1870s, Russia sought a renewal of the Dreikaiserbund (aka the Three Emperors' League) agreed between Germany, AH and Russia in 1873

Answer 192

The aftermath of the 1885 revolt in Bulgaria - Russia forced the abdication of the Prince of Bulgaria and threatened to greatly increase its influence over the Balkan state, badly damaging relations between Russia and AH

Answer 193

He was determined not to allow Russia to remain potentially hostile to Germany, and so he arranged the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia

Answer 194

- Russia should be allowed to be the prevailing influence in the Balkans - Both Germany and Russia would remain neutral if the other became involved in a war with a third Great Power - The clause of neutrality would not apply if Germany attacked France or if Russia attacked AH

Answer 195

The Kaiser disagreed with Bismarck's approach, strongly disapproving of limiting German and AH influence in the Balkans.

Answer 196

Russian ministers needed to seek alliances elsewhere in order to take the potential threat of the Triple Alliance seriously as the Reinsurance Treaties with Germany were not renewed.

Answer 197

Wanted to keep France isolated on the idea that if France had no powerful allies, they would be unable to seek revenge for their defeat in the Franco-Prussian War

Answer 198

The popular mood of revanche and the formation of the Dual Alliance

Answer 199

Britain had more common interests with Germany in the 1880s and 90s with its policy of Splendid Isolation, and Anglo-French imperial rivalry was very much alive and well

Answer 200

On the surface, Russia and France had very little in common, particularly in terms of their political systems

Answer 201

Growing mutual suspicion of Germany, continuing colonial disputes with Britain and financial deals - Russia needed foreign investment to develop its industry and France had money to give

Answer 202

For Russia to receive considerable French loans and gave France military security

Answer 203

1. If F attacked by G or Italy supported by G, R shall employ all available forces to attack G. If R attacked by G or AH supported by G, F shall employ all available forces to attack G 2. In the case of the forces of the Triple Alliance, or of any of the Powers belonging to it, mobilising, F and R shall mobilise immediately and simultaneously the whole of their forces 3. The available forces to be employed against G shall engage to the full with such speed that G will have to fight simultaneously on the East and the West 4. The General Staffs of the Armies of the two countries shall co-op with each other at all times in prep and facilitation of the execution of the measures mentioned above 5. F and R shall not conclude peace separately 6. The present Convention shall have the same duration as the Triple Alliance 7. All the clauses enumerated above shall be kept absolutely secret

Answer 204

To move soldiers and military equipment to the front line in preparation for war

Answer 205

High ranking army officials responsible for military planning and tactics

Answer 206

They showed that both France and Russia were very aware of Germany's fear of encirclement by hostile powers as the Triple Alliance had not remained secret as was intended, however, the opposing alliances did not know the full terms of the opposite agreement, allowing for room for suspicion and necessity for army chiefs of staff to prepare for the worst

Answer 207

Prussia had gone to war against AH as part of the German Wars of Unification as Bismarck saw the Habsburg Empire as decaying and did not want to tie the newly unified Germany to it

Answer 208

Concerns over the aftermath of the Ottoman Empire's decline

Answer 209

Relations were particularly strained - at the Congress of Berlin 1878, Bismarck had been one of the most vocal opponents of Russian ambitions in the Balkan region, prompting a complaint from Tsar Alexander II to the Kaiser

Answer 210

AH - it was equally concerned about Russian influence in the Balkans

Answer 211

October 1879

Answer 212

It was directed specifically against Russia 1. If either country was attacked by Russia, the other would provide full military support 2. If either country was attacked by a power other than Russia, the other would observe "benevolent neutrality" 3. The agreement would remain secret between the two powers 4. The agreement would last five years with the expectation that it would be renewed every three years thereafter

Answer 213

A power would not involve itself in a particular conflict but would lend non-military support to the power it was allied to

Answer 214

Yes - it was renewed and remained in place when WW1 broke out in 1914

Answer 215

France and Russia were greatly concerned - they became aware that a formal alliance had taken place between AH and G, but they did not know the exact terms, leading them to concern as both powers faced a potentially hostile bloc of G and AH in its central European border

Answer 216

They wanted to reduce the possibility of conflict with AH - the existing territorial rivalry between Italy and AH over Istria and Tyrol on the border between the two states was exacerbated by the process of Italian unification in 1871. A dispute with France over Tunisia prompted Italy to begin discussions with Germany and AH.

Answer 217

They recognised Italy as a useful ally against France as it was now predicted that France would ally with Russia in response to the Dual Alliance

Answer 218

As well as the existing Dual Alliance agreements, these terms now recognised France as a likely enemy. It was agreed that: 1. Germany and Italy would support each other if either was attacked by France 2. If Germany, AH, or Italy was attacked by another power, they would give each other mutual support 3. If AH went to war with Russia, Italy would remain neutral 4. As with the Dual Alliance, the Triple Alliance was to be secret

Answer 219

Their secret nature, preventing other powers knowing the specific terms of the agreements, increased suspicion and tension between the alliance blocs. The formation of the Dual Alliance marked a new era of IR, involving the gradual abandonment of congresses as a way of settling disputes and the pursuit of foreign policy aims by means of clandestine and defensive agreements between individual powers. Highlights a shift away from international congresses and towards secret negotiations to defend their countries' own interests

Answer 220

States had to be aware that if they declared war, they would not just be fighting one country - it would be multiple, thus reducing the chances of victory. Few statesmen were prepared to ignite a large-scale war engulfing most of Europe, even in the militaristic 1890s, so the alliances acted as a deterrent, encouraging powers to deescalate disputes with their neighbours

Answer 221

- Decline of Ottoman Empire - increased territorial rivalry in the Balkans between AH and Russia, and now that the alliances existed, conflict between these two powers would now not mean only 2 powers fighting, but four - Though imperial rivalries had been contained before 1900, they had certainly not been resolved - The end of the Bismarckian alliance system and the pursuit of Weltpolitik made Germany's fellow states concerned about the upset it was causing to the balance of power as it sought to expand its overseas empire and create an impressive naval fleet to rival Britain's

Answer 222

It was still contemplating which power was a strong enough potential ally for them to abandon "Splendid Isolation" for