Topic 4 - The end of the First World War and the peace settlement, 1917–1923 Flashcards
1
Q
What happened in 1919 in Paris?
A
Delegations representing 32 of the nations of WW1 went to the Paris Peace Conference to negotiate several peace settlements
2
Q
Who were the talks initially to be led by?
A
The Big Five - Britain, France, USA, Italy and Japan
3
Q
Which of these countries withdrew from the talks though, and why?
A
Japan - predominantly about the fate of Europe Italy - PM Vittorio Orlando temporarily withdrew after he could not secure territorial gains for the country
4
Q
Therefore, which countries were left the most victorious and influential in the negotiations?
A
USA, France and Britain
5
Q
What was the extent of the wreckage of the war?
A
It was psychological as well as physical - millions had been killed or wounded, huge swathes of French and Belgian landscapes had been utterly destroyed by trench warfare and vicious fighting still continued in the east as the world leaders met in Paris. The casualty rate and destruction were deeply shocking and so allied statesmen were guided by the desire for revenge and a lasting peace from the public, who were proudly adamant that such loss should never again be tolerated
6
Q
Which country experienced the most casualties in WW1?
A
Germany - 2 million dead and 4.2 wounded
7
Q
What did the democratic nature of each of the Big Three mean?
A
They had to reflect the attitudes of their electorates as well as their own personal views - if the general public did not feel their interests had been represented they were likely to vote their leaders out of office. This was particularly significant in Britain, which had a General Election in December 1918 and France, who had a legislative election scheduled for late 1919
8
Q
Who was Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929)?
A
He entered politics when he saw France defeated and occupied by the Prussians. He was nicknamed “The Tiger” and had a reputation for toughness and harboured deep resentment and fear of Germany. He was the PM of France from 1917, but disliked President Poincare. He was defeated in the 1920 presidential elections and died in 1929 after predicting another war with Germany
9
Q
What were the aims of Georges Clemenceau?
A
- Had witnessed 2 German invasions of France and viewed Germany as a dangerous power who would threaten France again later if its strength was not crippled. Amongst the French public, there was a strong desire for revenge - France had suffered the worst destruction and casualties on the allied side, provoking a strong desire for revenge and compensation from Germany. 25% of French male population aged 18-30 were dead or wounded - Was sceptical of Wilson’s 14 points, believing him to be too high minded and idealistic - Clemenceau was pragmatic and wanted Germany to be dismembered with the Rhineland made into a separate state to create a physical border between Germany and France. He was not convinced that Lloyd George and Wilson sympathised with the French fear of German invasion - Rather than a neutral location, Clemenceau insisted the conference be held in Paris as recognition of French sacrifices in the war
10
Q
Who was David Lloyd George (1863-1945)?
A
British PM since Dec 1916 - known for his flexibility and integrity. A liberal and had manoeuvred politically to pass progressive legislation and his pragmatism at the conference meant he acted as a conciliator between the vengeful Clemenceau and idealist Wilson. Expressed disappointment with the ToV and became a critic of the appeasement of Hitler
11
Q
What were the aims of Lloyd George?
A
- Had been elected 1918 with slogans like “hang the Kaiser” and promises to squeeze Germany financially “until the pips squeak”. Many British people expected Germany to pay reparations as the war had cost almost a million British and empire lives. Lloyd George also wanted to make sure Germany wouldn’t threaten British naval dominance and security of empire again - Privately, LG believed Britain would benefit from ensuring long term peace as the war had had a terrible impact on British trade - he recognised it could be a valuable trading partner if it was allowed to recover economically - like Wilson, he believed that punishing Germany too harshly would cause it to seek revenge in the future. He was also concerned that Germany would have a communist revolution if economic conditions were poor. The aims of punishing Germany whilst ensuring war didn’t break out in the future often conflicted with each other, causing bitter arguments among peacemakers - Like Clemenceau, LG was unenthusiastic about some of the 14 points - self-determination implied Britain would have to give up its empire - LG acted as a mediator between C and W at the conference - British and French leaders considered their aims to be more practical than Wilson’s, but LG agreed with US President’s aim of securing long term European peace
12
Q
What were the aims of Woodrow Wilson?
A
- Hoped results of Peace Conference would convince voters the war had been worth fighting in - many Americans had favoured neutrality instead of involvement - treaties emerged had to be based on American ideals like freedom from foreign oppression - shaped 14 points Jan 1918 - One of the principles behind increasingly popular policy of isolationism in the US was that European wars were almost inevitable due to “old world” bitterness and rivalry - view particularly prevalent amongst Republican senators and congressmen - Wilson was a Democrat, so his political career was at stake - a settlement providing long term peace essential - Establishment of League of Nations important to W - hoped would prevent future conflict by setting up negotiations and arbitration between countries in the event of disputes - Self-determination for smaller states formerly part of Habsburg, Russian and Ottoman Empires = principle guiding
13
Q
What were Wilson’s 14 Points?
A
- Peace treaties open, no more secret alliances 2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas 3. The removal of economic barriers are the establishment of free trade 4. Disarmament with just enough weapons to secure domestic safety 5. Self-determination for colonies 6. Germany must evacuate all Russian territories and allow Russia to develop politically 7. The evacuation and freedom of Belgium 8. All French territory freed and Alsace-Lorraine returned to France 9. Italy’s borders should be adjusted to take Italian nationality into account 10. Autonomy for the nationalities within the AH empire 11. Romania, Serbia and Montenegro to be evacuated, Balkan nationalities to receive independence 12. Turkey should be consolidated as a state but the Ottoman Empire to be broken up and its nationalities given independence 13. Poland to be established as an independent state with access to the sea 14. The establishment of a general association of nations must be formed to guarantee political independence and territorial integrity for large and small states
14
Q
How did the Big Three ensure that their influence was felt over the conference?
A
- Each of the Big Three exerted influence over the aspects of the settlement which they felt most affected the interests of their own countries - After the delegations of the 32 represented countries, the Big Three discusses the eventual TOV terms which dealt with Germany and the LON - The subsequent treaties settling disputes in Eastern Europe and Turkey were shaped by a series of compromises
15
Q
Which two powers were not invited to the conference?
A
- Germany as the defeated side - Russia mistrusted and sidelined as a communist state
16
Q
When did the Paris Peace Conference begin?
A
18th January 1919
17
Q
Where did divisions occur between the Big Three in the agreements?
A
- Clemenceau demanded more security for France against Germany in the form of a barrier in the Rhineland and French control of Saar coalfields - This was rejected by Wilson and Lloyd George as it contradicted self-determination and Britain and the USA had the seas as a natural barrier against a resurgent Germany - Lloyd George predicted that by confiscating more German territory there would be a new revanchism and continued bitterness between Germany and France
18
Q
What happened in March 1919?
A
- The negotiations had reached a stalemate and the conference appeared likely to collapse - Lloyd George issued the Fontainebleau Memorandum, setting out the extent of principles acceptable to the British
19
Q
What did Lloyd George achieve with the Fontainebleau Memorandum?
A
- He persuaded Clemenceau to accept a more balanced treaty which would not leave Germany unable to recover economically, and convinced him to accept the League of Nations - With Clemenceau’s agreement to these key principles secured, Lloyd George then persuaded Wilson to accept the “War Guilt” clause
20
Q
What were the unavoidable concerns around Europe’s borders during the talks and how were these resolved?
A
- The redrawing of Europe’s borders would mean some people would now find themselves part of a country they did not want to live in - The peacemakers tried to ensure protection for minorities, such as freedom of religion and language
21
Q
What was the problem with self-determination for former empires?
A
- It did not extend to these former empires - For Germany’s former colonies, already under possession of Allies, as well as the former territories overseas of the Ottoman Empire, a system of mandates was introduced - It was widely felt that countries like Cameroon and the Samoan Islands were not yet mature and civilised enough to rule themselves, so they would be governed by Europeans until they had “matured into nationhood” - According to Wilson, mandates were unnecessary for Europeans when it came to the former Habsburg Empire
22
Q
What is meant by the term “mandate”?
A
Territories (particularly overseas colonies) transferred to the control of a different country until they were thought capable of governing themselves
23
Q
Who led the Arabian delegation?
A
Prince Faisal and advised by Thomas Edward Lawrence (known to posterity as Lawrence of Arabia)
24
Q
How were the Arabian delegation involved in the Paris Peace Conference?
A
- Arrived in Paris to claim Mesopotamia - However, Lloyd George blocked their proposals in favour of British control over the region - Britain’s desire for Arabian oil and security around the Suez Canal was prioritised over the promises made to the Arabs in 1915
25
How were Japan involved in the Paris Peace Conference?
- Hoped their presence would secure their transition to a world power - Had been a successful wartime ally and now occupied Korea and Manchuria in China - Proposed a racial equality clause in the treaty which would end the ban on Asian immigration in force in the USA and Australia - At first this was blocked and the Japanese threatened to walk out whilst China implored the peacemakers not to compromise as Japan's occupation of Manchuria contravened self-determination - Wilson finally agreed to Japan's demand to prevent the conference collapsing, but the Chinese felt betrayed
26
Why were Italy disappointed with the Paris Peace Conference?
- They were angry by vetoed proposals - Under the 1915 Treaty of London the Italians had been promised land around the Adriatic; Wilson now opposed the idea in the name of self determination - The response of the Italian delegation was to walk out of the conference - The blocking of territorial gains gave rise to increased Italian nationalism and expansionism
27
What happened in May 1919?
The peacemakers wrote to Berlin to request a German delegation to receive the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Germany was given no opportunity to change the terms and had to accept them
28
What were the military terms of the Treaty of Versailles?
- German army allowed only 100,000 regular soldiers - Navy restricted to 6 battleships and no submarines - No conscription - No military aircraft - No armoured vehicles (e.g. tanks) - Outstanding vessels were to be scrapped or given to the Allies - Rhineland to be demilitarised and Germans not allowed to occupy it - Germany forbidden from allying with Austria
29
When was the Treaty of Versailles signed?
28th June 1919
30
What is the significance of the Rhineland?
It was a rich industrial area of Germany and bordered France
31
What happened at Scapa Flow in June 1919?
The German sailors scuttled (deliberately sank) much of their own fleet so they didn't have to forfeit it to the Allies
32
What were the two aims of confiscating territory from Germany?
- To punish Germany - To satisfy France by giving them industrially rich land
33
How much of its European land did Germany lose overall?
0.1
34
What German territories were confiscated?
- Alsace-Lorraine (given to France) - The Saar Coalfields (seized and placed under LON control with plebiscite allowed after 15 years to allow Saarlanders to decide if they wanted to return to German nationality) - West Prussia and Posen (given to Poland to give them access to the Baltic Sea) - North Schleswig (given to Denmark) - Eupen and Malmedy (given to Belgium) - All of Germany's overseas colonies were confiscated and put under control of LON or former allies
35
What was Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles?
- Known as the "war guilt clause" - Attributed blame for the war on Germany, which had to accept responsibility for "causing all the loss and damage"
36
What di Article 231 allow the peacemakers to do?
Demand reparations from Germany as compensation for the destruction caused by the war: - 52% would go to France - 28% would go to Britain - The remaining reparations would go to other allies, like Italy and Japan
37
When was the sum of reparations decided?
It was only decided in 1921
38
What was the eventual sum of reparations agreed?
£6.6 billion
39
What was the aim of the establishment of the League of Nations?
- To act as a "world government" - To prevent wars by referring international disputes to the League's Council - Instructed to start the process of worldwide disarmament and to enforce the TOV - Germany not allowed to join until it could prove it was a "peace-loving" nation
40
How did the peacemakers go about making settlements in Eastern and Southern Europe and Turkey?
- It was more difficult than expected to put self-determination into practice than expected in the east, especially as many of the peacemakers had little knowledge of the complexities of the regions they were dividing up - In Eastern Europe, the establishment of new states was a fait accompli and the Allies now had the task of affirming or adjusting the exact areas of new states according to international law - Each additional treaty dealt with one of the defeated Central Powers and the sympathies of the Allies lay with the successor states of the former empires
41
When was the Treaty of St Germain?
10th September 1919
42
Which country did the Treaty of St Germain deal with?
Austria
43
What were the terms of the Treaty of St Germain?
- Formally separated Austria and Hungary - Punished Austria militarily by restricting its army to 30,000 soldiers and forbidding a union with Germany - Self-determination not applied to Austria - a defeated nation, not a new state - Bohemia and Moravia -> Czechoslovakia - BH -> Yugoslavia - Galicia -> Poland - Istria and South Tyrol -> Italy - South Tyrol was home to 230,000 Austrian Germans, clashing with self-determination but Wilson gave way to this to show Italy they were reasonable (1915 Treaty of London) - Had to pay reparations - Attempts to organise customs agreements between A, H and Czechoslovakia were stifled by the Supreme Economic Council - Food relief given to prevent starvation - Steiner says Austria was "too small to live but too large to die"
44
When was the Treaty of Neuilly signed?
27th November 1919
45
Which country did the Treaty of Neuilly deal with?
Bulgaria
46
What were the terms of the Treaty of Neuilly?
- Treated as a defeated enemy, but terms lenient compared to A and H's - Reduced in size but on a small scale - Romania, Greece and Yugoslavia gained Bulgarian land - Lost access to the Mediterranean, affecting capacity for trade - The region of Thrace had been strongly contested by the peacemakers, but to Bulgaria's frustration, eastern Thrace was eventually awarded to Greece - In addition, Bulgaria's armed forces were limited to 20,000 regular troops and 13,000 military police and border guards
47
When was the Treaty of Trianon signed?
4th June 1920
48
Which country did the Treaty of Trianon deal with?
Hungary
49
What was the context of the creation of the Treaty of Trianon?
- Negotiated against the backdrop of political turbulence in the country - In March 1919 a communist government (the Hungarian Soviet Republic) was established under Bela Kun in Budapest - This was of deep concern to the peacemakers, who perhaps would have drawn up less harsh terms against Hungary if they were not worried about the spread of communism - The ambitions of Hungary also caused disputes with Romania and Czechoslovakia as they hoped to secure Slovakia as a part of the Republic - After months of conflict and under the threat of Allied intervention, the communist government was overthrown and a democratic coalition gov established in its place
50
What were the terms of the Treaty of Trianon?
- Terms were very harsh - Lost 2/3 of territory and 3 million of its people - Transylvania -> Romania - Slovakia and Ruthenia -> Czechoslovakia - Slovenia and Croatia -> Yugoslavia - Hungarian government protested against these losses and imposition of reparations, but they had no choice but to sign the treaty
51
When was the Treaty of Sevres signed?
August 1920
52
Which country did the Treaty of Sevres deal with?
Turkey
53
Give some context to the Treaty of Sevres
- Treatment of Turkey in the treaty reflected their long term hostility of the Allies to the Turks - Lloyd George compared their "mismanagement" of the Ottoman Empire to a "human cancer" - The Armenian Massacre in 1915-16 further convinced the peacemakers of the Ottoman government's "evil"
54
What were the terms of the Treaty of Sevres?
- Ideal of self-determination ignored - territories stripped from Turkey's control and many key strategic areas established as mandates and protectorates - Smyrna -> Greece - Iraq and Palestine -> British mandates - Lebanon and Syria -> French mandates - Morocco and Tunisia -> French protectorates - Hejaz -> independent kingdom - Turkish Straits -> LON - British, French, Italian and Greek troops occupied Turkey - Army limited to 50,700 men
55
When was the Treaty of Lausanne signed?
24th July 1923
56
Which country did the Treaty of Lausanne deal with?
Turkey
57
Give some context behind the Treaty of Lausanne
- The Treaty of Sevres was deeply unpopular in Turkey - Popular discontent sparked an uprising led by the Turk nationalist leader Kemal Ataturk - The Sultan, tainted by his role in signing the Treaty of Sevres, was deposed and Ataturk's army drove Greek and British troops out of Turkey - Ataturk rejected the Sevres and the Allies agreed to renegotiate the settlement
58
What were the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne?
- Signed in Switzerland (a neutral country) - Returned all the territories given to Greece back to Turkey - a notable concession given the long term hostility between Greece and Turkey (war 1897 and 1912) - All foreign troops ordered to leave - Returned control of Straits back to Turkey, although they had to remain - Signed in Switzerland (a neutral country) - Returned all the territories given to Greece back to Turkey - a notable concession given the long term hostility between Greece and Turkey (war 1897 and 1912)
59
What happened in November 1918?
The Republican Party became the majority party in the US Congress
60
What happened on 10th January 1920?
League of Nations commenced business
61
What happened in March 1920?
US senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles or allow the USA to join the League of Nations
62
What happened in January 1921?
British and French troops occupied parts of Germany after Germany refused to pay reparations
63
What happened in September 1923?
Ataturk repudiated the Treaty of Sevres
64
Why did isolationism increase in popularity in America?
It was as a result of its war experience
65
How were Wilson's 14 points received in America?
- They were generally very popular - Some, especially Republicans, were dubious about the idea of a League of Nations - Businessmen worried about the impact of free trade, favouring protectionism as the economic embodiment of isolationism
66
Describe the setting up of the League of Nations
- Anti war sentiment 1919 led to desire to resolve international disputes and tensions through creation of multilateral organisation - delegates of sovereign nations to discuss, debate and arbitrate disputes with member states - Wilson supported it greatly - speech to US Congress January 1918 - 14 points - "general association of nations" for "affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity" - South African Jan Smuts wrote about LON and how it might function - Paris Peace Conference 1919 - 44 countries ratified Covenant LON - new body called into being in Jan 1920 - 1st LON assembly - all member nations, 18 nation executive council - Britain, France, US, Italy and Japan to sit as permanent members of executive - LON - 42 founding members, none of central powers had invitations for membership of league
67
How did political developments in the immediate aftermath of the war help to secure rejection of the TOV and LON by the US Senate?
- At the very end of the war, the USA held midterm elections - These resulted in the Republican Party gaining the majority of seats in the Congress - Not only was Wilson a Democrat, but the Republicans promoted themselves as champions of isolationism, making his ideals appear increasingly at odds with American public opinion - The 66th Congress commenced in March 1919, just as Wilson was negotiating the TOV in Europe
68
Describe the American political structure
- US Constitution embodies the "separation of powers" principle - this keeps the legislative, executive and judicial branches separate to prevent the abuse of power - President is Head of State and is voted for in a presidential election every 4 years - Congressmen are elected to the House of Representatives every 2 years - Senators are elected to the Senate every 6 years - Midterm elections are held 2 years into a President's term of office - Foreign treaties can be proposed by the President but need the approval of the senate, which Wilson failed to obtain in 1919
69
What can it mean for a Democrat President if Republicans win the majority in Congress in a midterm election (or vice versa)?
The President will find it much more difficult to gain legislative support for his policies (as was experienced by Wilson)
70
What did Wilson's 6 month absence mean for his popularity in America?
- It left something of a power vacuum in Washington just as America was adjusting to the new conditions of peacetime after 20 months of war - The USA was experiencing a post-war slump as industries re-adjusted their output away from munitions and immigration was of increasing concern to many Americans - The President, preoccupied with international affairs, saw his earlier popularity drain away - To reclaim his popularity, the TOV would have to gain strong approval from many Americans
71
Which points of the TOV were Republicans like Senator Henry Cabot Lodge most disappointed with?
- Freedom of the seas blocked by Britain - Self determination had not been applied to all regions - Wilson had sacrificed this to please the Japanese by allowing them to continue their occupation of Shandong rather than return it to Chinese sovereignty - this was particularly concerning as the region came under the American sphere of influence - LON had mandates in former colonies and the British Empire continued to exist - this offended the American campaign for anti-colonialism - particularly disappointed by lack of self-determination for Ireland - Many Americans expected a fairer treaty - concern that the treaty would cause bitterness and a desire for revenge - Restriction of America's freedom of action - Monroe Doctrine stated that the US should remain free from European influence
72
Why were American businessmen and Republicans deeply uncomfortable with the role the US would be assigned if they joined the LON?
- By 1919 the USA was the most influential and economically powerful nation in the world - Wilson's opponents therefore feared the USA would be relied upon more than others to uphold the TOV and settle international disputes, thereby indefinitely committing itself to troop deployment and long term involvement in European affairs - Though the USA lost far fewer men than their European allies, the conflict was a remote one and many ordinary Americans did not feel that even a small sacrifice was worthwhile
73
Describe American opposition to the LON
- LON reliant on US support but Wilson found American attitudes towards it to be mixed in 1919 - Lukewarm consensus that a multinational body was necessary, more for peace and stability of Europe than any other reason, but strong opposition to some aspects of covenant - Article X was concerning to Republicans - bound members to League to "respect and preserve...the territorial integrity and political independence" of other members - interpreted it as an open-ended treaty hamstringing American foreign policy - More conspiratorial Americans said LON = globalist "new world order" - supranational government overriding sovereignty and national interests of the US
74
How did Wilson's popularity and power decline further after the TOV?
- Though there was bitter discontent with the treaty, Wilson went on a speaking tour of the US in autumn 1919 to vigorously defend the settlement - Already overworked in Europe, this proved too much for his health and he suffered a stroke in September 1919, further diminishing his capacity to lead the country - After initially proposing to attach their own conditions to the TOV, in March 1920 the Senate refused to ratify it and refused to allow the USA to become a member of the LON
75
What is meant by the term "ratify"?
To give the final recognition to a treaty following its signature by the parties involved
76
Where did the idea of "no entangling alliances" come from?
President Thomas Jefferson's inaugural speech in 1801 - promised "honest friendship with all nations - entangling alliances with none"
77
Who was Wilson succeeded by?
The Republican Warren Harding
78
What did Harding's government extend the policy of isolationism to?
- Immigration (banned Asian immigration and introduced quotas to limit the number of southern and eastern European immigrants) - The economy
79
How did Harding create economic isolation?
- Tariffs were introduced/increased to drive up the cost of foreign imports in order to protect domestic markets - The USA's trading partners responded with "retaliatory tariffs" which in turn made American imports to their countries more expensive - The result was a decline in global trade, which made international cooperation less important to countries' economies
80
What method of international relations had the LON hoped to foster?
Internationalism - a very different approach to how foreign affairs had been conducted previously and to how crises and disputes had been resolved before 1914
81
What did the British diplomat Lord Robert Cecil call the LON?
"a great experiment"
82
What were the major problems with the LON?
- Even the leaders of the League doubted its success now that the USA was not a member - Leadership was left to Britain and France, giving it "European bias" (Zara Steiner), and since the USSR and Germany were not allowed to join, the impression was given that the League was a "victors' club" which was more likely to defend their own interests than promote international peace - peacekeeping became "Eurocentric", damaging its credibility when dealing with crises - The French and British were not optimistic - Lloyd George called it a "lame duck", believing it to be useless and counterproductive without America - The British just wanted to rebuild their trade and protect their empire and France was preoccupied with fears of the Germans and never really trusted Britain - Without the USA they lacked authority, political influence and economic power - The League's biggest sanction was trade boycotts, but as America was the greatest exporter, this punishment was practically useless as they could still trade
83
When did Austria and Bulgaria join the League of Nations?
December 1920
84
When did Hungary join the League of Nations?
September 1922
85
When did Germany join the League of Nations?
September 1926
86
What was the final Treaty of Versailles like?
- After 6 months of negotiations, delegates to Paris reached awkward compromises fashioned into a Treaty - Formally signed in Hall of Mirrors at Palace of Versailles 28th June 1919 - Few delegates were fully happy, with Germany being the most unhappy, whose delegates had been excluded until May 1919, after which attendance was a formality so they could be lectured about what had been declared on their behalf - Article 231 was of greatest concern to Berlin - "war guilt clause" - Germany had to accept full responsibility for the war - drafted by American legal experts who said Germany could only be held liable for reparations if they admitted starting the war
87
What was the fate of Germany as a result of the Treaty of Versailles?
- Territorial and economic penalties were extensive - Germany lost 13% land, 6 mil Germans were made citizens of other nations and 15% German agricultural land and 10% industry was given to France - Germany's merchant fleet mostly went to Britain, lost colonial possessions, Alsace-Lorraine returned to France, the Rhineland was demilitarised and occupied and Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark - Germany was forbidden from political or economic union with Austria and Posen and West Prussia went to Poland, cutting East Prussia off from Germany - The army was cut to 100,000 men, forbidden from tanks, warplanes and heavy artillery, the navy cut to 15,000 personnel, only allowed 6 battleships and no subs - Germany indefinitely excluded from LON
88
How did France react to the TOV?
- Did not find satisfaction - Not immediately ratified - subject to 6 weeks of fierce debate in the Chamber of Deputies - Brought to the surface some of the sharpest divisions in French politics - Socialists argued the Treaty was too harsh - Germany was now democratic and France should cooperate - Centre and right wing pointed out that it contained very few assurances against future German aggression - Germany was now surrounded by small, weak states and Clemenceau had failed to secure the Rhineland as a buffer state - General Foch (Supreme Allied Commander) - the treaty was "not peace but an armistice for 20 years" - Eventually ratified by the French but Clemenceau's popularity had greatly diminished - he was defeated in the 1920 presidential election
89
How did Britain react to the TOV?
- Lloyd George expressed concerns over the TOV even before the Germans signed in June 1919 - German delegation's rebuttal to the terms won Lloyd George's admiration - He tried to convince Wilson and Clemenceau to reconsider key terms but they refused - However, he was greeted as a hero by the British public upon his return from France in summer 1919 - Issue of reparations most criticised by Britain - Lloyd George's negotiation of Britain's share was complicated by the fact that he owed £1 billion to America - The British were convinced that the reparations on Germany would cause long-term economic misery for Germans who now had a democratic gov not responsible for causing the war - A failed German economy would disadvantage Britain - it would have a negative impact on British trade and could cause a communist revolution
90
Who were the Council of Four?
Comprised the Big three (Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George) and Orlando of Italy
91
What was Germany's initial reaction to the TOV?
- When the German delegation was shown the terms, Count Brockdorff-Rantzau made a defiant speech against it - When the Allies sent a final ultimatum to the Germans on 16th June, the gov resigned in protest and the Chancellor Scheidemann announced "May the hand wither that signs this treaty" - The ultimatum was a threat of renewal of conflict and immediate resumption of the naval blockade if the Treaty was not signed - A new gov was formed with Gustav Bauer as Chancellor and a Reichstag vote was held on the peace settlement - 237 voted in favour, 138 voted against and 5 refused to vote - The FM (Muller) and Colonial Minister (Bell) were sent to sign the Treaty on behalf of Germany
92
What was the public opinion about the TOV in Germany?
- The treatment under the TOV was not the pure reason for Hitler's 1933 rise to power, but the German gov's acceptance of the terms created a toxic feeling of betrayal among many - The signing was an early and significant blow to the rep of the Weimar gov - the treaty was seen as a "diktat" as the leaders had no say in it - Returning troops felt that Germany had been making significant gains in autumn 1918 and so felt a sense of deep betrayal - as Germany had not been defeated and there had been no allied invasion, the treaty was seen as a "stab in the back"
93
What is meant by the term "November Criminals"?
- Extreme right-wing groups in Germany began propaganda campaigns in the aftermath of the armistice and TOV - Claimed that soldiers of WW1 had been betrayed by the gov - Politicians involved in signing the armistice were branded "November Criminals", a slogan adopted by Hitler in the 1920s - As Hitler's popularity grew, so did the slogan - it was among the factors that eroded the credibility of the Weimar Republic
94
Why did Germany feel so punished under the TOV?
- Germans viewed the war guilt clause and exclusion from the LON as pride denting and resentful - they felt that Russia was equally, if not more responsible for starting the war. This was further exacerbated by the military restrictions, which left Germany vulnerable to invasion - There were genuine concerns that the 6.5 million Germans who now lived under foreign rule would be persecuted by their new govs and right wingers felt they should be brought back under German jurisdiction - Reparations was the most unpalatable element - claimed that the allies were deliberately trying to starve German mothers and children - the Weimar gov petitioned to renegotiate the amount and schedule of payment, and in 1921, upon Germany's refusal to pay, 3 cities were occupied by British and French troops - in November the government began making payments as the scale of reparations had been adjusted in German favour
95
When was the Russian Civil War?
November 1917 - October 1922
96
What happened in February 1919?
Beginning of Polish-Soviet War
97
What happened on 18th March 1921?
Treaty of Riga concluded the Polish-Soviet War
98
When was the Washington Disarmament Conference?
12th November 1921 - 6th February 1922
99
What happened on 16th April 1922?
Treaty of Rapallo signed by the USSR and Germany
100
What happened in January 1923?
French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr begins
101
What happened in August 1923?
Beginning of the Corfu incident
102
What was the position of the USA in world affairs in the early 1920s?
- Despite its formal rejection of the TOV and the LON, the true extent of their "isolationism" has been questioned - Warren Harding (Republican) had been elected with a majority of 7mil votes with a promise of a "return to normalcy", removing wartime restrictions and increasing gov controls - Harding said in his inaugural speech "we do not mean to be entangled" - However, Harding and his Secretary of State, Charles Evans Hughes, realised that American interests would not be best served by total economic and diplomatic isolationism - They were concerned about controlling the nature and extent of the USA's involvement in world affairs though
103
What did Hughes and Herbert Hoover (Secretary of Commerce) hope to encourage and how was this perceived?
- They hoped to encourage the development of European countries - This was a popular idea with US businessmen who saw opportunities for investment abroad - It also increased the ability of debtor nations to repay the total $3bil lent by the USA in WW1
104
What did America do after the Paris Peace Conference and how did European countries respond?
- America called in its loans to its former allies - Debtor nations Britain, France and Belgium protested as their economic recovery from wartime was slow and Germany was yet to begin paying reparations
105
How did America respond to debtor nations' protests?
- Their attitude was unsympathetic - Calvin Coolidge, the future US President, said "They hired the money didn't they? Let them pay!" - The American gov therefore introduced protective tariffs in 1921 and 1922
106
How did Harding use protective tariffs to help US farmers?
- Farmers were suffering from the effects of peacetime - During the war, they had new markets in Europe and invested in new equipment to increase their production - Now Europe could produce more of its own food again, US farmers had too much food and not enough customers, and so prices plummeted - Harding passed the Emergency Tariff to solve this issue
107
What did the Emergency Tariff do?
Increased duties on food imports
108
What was the Emergency Tariff followed by and what did this do?
- It was followed by a more general tariff - This cancelled out the lower price of European imports (which were manufactured by lower paid workers) to the USA
109
What did other nations do in response to the USA's protective tariffs?
- Introduced retaliatory tariffs - This restricted world trade as more consumers bought domestic products
110
How did the USA still involve itself in international negotiations despite not being in the LON?
- Though they were committed to a large degree of economic isolation, they operated outside of the LON to pursue their own foreign policy objectives - This fitted with the doctrine of isolationism as it allowed the US to negotiate with other powers to America's international interests, but without committing it to the "entanglements" Republicans were so keen to avoid
111
What international negotiation did America involve itself in in particular?
Worldwide disarmament
112
Why was America keen to be involved in worldwide disarmament?
- It was the fourth of Wilson's 14 points - However, under the TOV, only Germany was to be disarmed, and in the subsequent central and Eastern European treaties, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey also had military restrictions placed upon them - Public opinion in many countries was strongly in favour of disarmament - The unresolved tension between the USA and Japan over their spheres of influence in the pacific was of growing concern
113
Who called the Washington Naval Conference?
Harding
114
Why did Harding call the Washington Naval Conference?
- There were growing concerns about the increasing size of the Japanese navy - The Anglo-Japanese Agreement 1902 was due to expire in 1922, which would remove a safeguard against an imbalance in naval strength in the Pacific
115
What happened after the Washington Naval Conference was called?
The leaders of several nations met in Washington DC to conclude on a series of agreements in 1921 and 1922
116
When was the Four-Power Pact signed?
13th December 1921
117
Which countries was the Four-Power Pact signed between?
- USA - Britain - Japan - France
118
What were the terms of the 1921 Four-Power Pact?
- All nations signing the pact would consult each other in the event of a dispute over the Pacific - Each power would respect others' rights and interests over the Pacific Islands
119
When was the Five-Power Limitation Treaty signed?
6th February 1922
120
Which countries was the Five-Power Limitation Treaty signed between?
- USA - Britain - Japan - France - Italy
121
What were the terms of the 1922 Five-Power Limitation Treaty?
- Set a ratio for the number of large warships allowed to each signatory: for every 5 possessed by the USA and Britain, Japan could have three and France and Italy could have 1.67 - All other military ships were to be scrapped: America. Britain and Japan disposed of 66 ships between them - The five powers agreed to abandon the building of more large warships for 10 years - This treaty remained in force until 1936 when Japan sought more favourable terms
122
When was the Nine-Power Pact signed?
6th February 1922
123
Which countries was the Nine-Power Pact signed between?
- USA - Britain - Japan - France - Italy - The Netherlands - Portugal - Belgium - China
124
What were the terms of the 1922 Nine-Power Pact?
- The use of submarines was regulated - The deployment of poison gas in warfare was banned - China's independence and borders were reasserted
125
What were liberal leaders pleased to see?
The overthrow of the autocratic Tsarist regime in Russia in favour of a provisional gov promising a Western style democracy
126
What meant that the promise of a Western style democracy in Russia was neglected?
The Bolshevik seizure of power in November 1917
127
How did the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power threaten the survival of capitalist governments?
- A communist state, especially one as large as Russia, which openly committed itself to instigating communist uprisings across the world, was a direct capitalist threat - Communism appealed to many in the lower classes in advanced capitalist countries like the USA and Britain, and therefore those of middle and upper class feared a revolution which would strip them of their wealth and privilege and possibly threaten their lives - Other countries being communist would also threaten trade as communism advocated self-sufficiency, making trading with other nations unnecessary
128
Why was Russia not invited to discuss any of the post-war settlements?
Most countries refused to formally recognise the Bolshevik gov led by Lenin
129
How had attitudes to Russia (now the USSR) changed by 1922?
- A series of events meant that they were accepted into the international community, though not to the LON - However, most Western leaders continued to express their deep disapproval of the regime
130
What happened in the Russian Civil war almost as soon as the Bolsheviks had set up their gov?
Counter-revolutionary forces, called the Whites, began their attack against the communist Red Army
131
Describe the nature of the Russian Civil War 1917-1922
- It was extremely bitter and exceptionally violent - It wasn't until 1922 that counter-revolutionaries were defeated in Siberia and the Bolsheviks could claim complete control of the country
132
How did Western powers involve themselves in the Russian Civil War?
- They were attempting to strangle Bolshevism in its cradle by intervening on the side of the Whites - This would sour relations between Russia and the West for decades - British, American, French, Japanese, Czech and Polish forces launched a series of attacks 1918-21, often separate and uncoordinated - This proved fruitless as the Red Army exploited its home advantages
133
What helped to cement the Bolsheviks' reputation as tyrants in the West?
- The "Red Terror" - brutal treatment of suspected enemies of the revolution - It has been argued, however, that similar atrocities were committed by the Whites
134
What was the outcome of the Russian Civil War 1917-22?
- The Bolsheviks won - The communists never forgave the Western govs for their involvement in the Civil War
135
What did the Bolsheviks do in March 1919?
- They established the Third International, the Comintern - This was designed to help coordinate and encourage communist parties in other countries to begin a worldwide communist revolution - Lenin realised the need for pragmatism, however
136
What was the New Economic Policy 1921?
- Introduced by Lenin following the financial crisis caused by the Russian Civil War - His previous economic policy, War Communism, was so harsh it prompted rebellion - Therefore, the NEP allowed peasants to sell their surplus produce for profit and permitted small private businesses
137
What was the reaction to the New Economic Policy 1921?
- It was deeply unpopular with leftist Marxists - Although the economy improved, some committed communists believed Lenin had "sold out" to capitalism and left the Communist Party
138
Why was Russian foreign policy in the early 1920s a strange contradiction?
- Communist Russia could not survive without re-establishing diplomatic relations with the rest of the world or creating trade links - It was a contradiction between communist ideology advocating world rebellion and the spurning of the capitalist and imperialist powers, and the practical need to secure survival through diplomacy and international trade
139
How did the Polish-Soviet War begin?
- War between Russia and its newly independent neighbour began with Poland hoping to extend its eastern border and exploit the weakness of the Bolsheviks in mid 1919 when the Civil War was at its height - Polish troops invaded Galicia and initially made impressive gains, but the Red Army pushed back decisively after the Polish reached Ukraine
140
What prompted the Allied leaders to discuss intervention in the Polish-Soviet War?
The Russian forces had subsequently been so successful that they had almost reached Warsaw by June 1920
141
What did British Foreign Secretary George Curzon do to intervene in the Polish-Soviet War?
- He proposed the "Curzon line" as a demarcation border between the warring states - However, this was rejected by the Bolsheviks, who were tempted to push on, perhaps to try and spread the communist revolution into Poland and Germany by military means
142
What did the British and French do despite being reluctant to commit troops to the Polish-Soviet War?
- They anticipated the blockading of Russian ports - This was enough to make the Bolsheviks consider a peace settlement
143
What happened on 2nd August 1920?
- The Bolsheviks published their terms of a peace settlement with Poland - These were relatively generous to Poland, allowing them more territory than that of the "Curzon line" - Poland, however, rejected one clause stipulating the creation of a people's militia, so the war continued
144
What happened on 13th August 1920?
- The Red Army attacked Warsaw - This was followed 3 days later by a successful Polish counter-attack
145
What agreements did Russia sign in March 1921?
- 16th - Treaty of Riga, which concluded the Polish-Soviet War and restored both countries' borders to their status before Poland's initial military action - Russia also signed a trade agreement with Britain
146
What were the terms of the April 1922 Treaty of Rapallo?
- Signed by Germany and Russia - Normal relations were established after the imbalance of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk - Both states agreed to give up financial claims against one another
147
What was the significance of the April 1922 Treaty of Rapallo?
- The agreement between two important powers isolated by the post-war peace settlements worried Western govs - It provided the Soviets with economic and military advice from Germany - Germany, meanwhile, gained investment opportunities in the USSR and improved the prospects for a more reasonable amended post-war treaty from the Allies
148
What resulted from the boundaries of new and successor states emerging at the end of WW1?
- This was an extraordinarily difficult task for the peacemakers - The Polish-Soviet War was, in many ways, a border dispute as Poland had only just been granted independence from the Russian Empire under the TOV - As Harold Nicholson had predicted, the LON's ability to deal with conflicts caused by the readjustment of new borders was soon tested
149
Overall, what was the LON's response to many disputes arising in the early and mid 1920s like?
It was broadly successful
150
Which nation was Vilna given to under the TOV?
Lithuania - it became its capital
151
What happened in Vilna in 1920?
- Poland invaded it - Lithuania appealed to the LON for assistance, but Britain and France could not agree on a solution - The League's Covenant stated that troops should have been sent to force Poland's withdrawal, but France was reluctant to offend the Poles, who were potential allies in case of future German aggression and Britain would not act alone
152
How successful was the LON in dealing with the 1920 Vilna dispute?
Unsuccessful - the League ultimately did not respond and Poland kept control of Vilna
153
Why was Upper Silesia disputed over in 1920?
It was on the German-Polish border and was disputed by both states as they both wanted the benefit of its lucrative iron and steel industry
154
Who officially controlled Upper Silesia?
Poland
155
What happened in Upper Silesia in 1920?
- A plebiscite was considered contentious enough for the League to send British and French troops to maintain order at the polling booths - The plebiscite revealed a clear split in opinion as voters in industrial areas wanted to become German whilst those in agricultural areas wanted to remain Polish
156
How successful was the LON in dealing with the Upper Silesia dispute in 1920?
Successful - the LON divided the region according to the results of the plebiscite
157
What happened in the Aaland islands in 1921?
- They were coveted by Sweden and Finland - Geographically, the islands were roughly the same distance from each country - The League's assistance was sought to resolve the dispute
158
How successful was the LON in dealing with the Aaland Islands dispute in 1921?
Successful - it ruled that the Aaland Islands should become Finnish, which Sweden accepted
159
What did events in Corfu suggest?
That the tension in the Balkans was yet to be resolved after sparking WW1
160
Where is Corfu?
An island near the coasts of Greece and Albania
161
What happened in 1923 with Corfu?
- The Greek-Albanian border was still to be finalised - In 1923 Italian officials were sent to the area to investigate the claims of the two nations
162
What happened on 27th August 1923?
The members of the Italian inspection team, led by General Tellini, were murdered following Greek claims that they were not acting impartially
163
Who was Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)?
- Founded the fascist movement in Italy - Became PM in 1922 - Transformed Italy into a one-party dictatorship, ruthlessly removing all the opposition - He took the country to war on Germany's side in 1940, but was deposed by the King in 1943 - Two years later, he was executed by anti-fascists
164
How did Mussolini react to the murders of the Italian investigation team in 1923?
- He was outraged - As a result, a parallel with the aftermath of Franz Ferdinand's assassination emerged as events unfolded
165
What happened on 29th August 1923?
Mussolini demanded that the Greek gov - who he believed to be responsible for at least allowing the murders - meet several demands in an ultimatum
166
What were the demands in the Italians' August 1923 ultimatum?
- The Greeks had to provide Italy with an official apology - The murderers had to be executed - Italy had to be paid compensation of 50 million lire - Italians should be involved in the inquiry into the murders
167
Which demand in the ultimatum did Greece reject and why?
- The demand that Italy should be involved in the murder inquiries - This was rejected on the grounds of Greek sovereignty - This move was eerily similar to Serbia's rejection of a similar clause in AH's ultimatum of July 1914
168
What happened on 31st August 1923?
Italy occupied Corfu in retaliation to their rejection of the ultimatum
169
What unrelated political circumstances looked to upset the LON's process of peacemaking upon Greece appealing to the LON?
The French were concerned that intervention in Corfu might draw accusations of hypocrisy as they were at the time occupying the Ruhr in Germany
170
How did the League actually respond, however?
They acted quickly, condemning the actions of Italy
171
What did the LON do to end the Corfu Incident?
- Greece had to pay compensation to Italy - However, this was held by the LON and only paid to Italy when the murderers were caught and proven to be Greek
172
How did Mussolini react to the LON's interference?
He was frustrated and used his influence to persuade the Conference of Ambassadors (one of the LON's governing bodies) to alter the judgement
173
How did the LON alter their judgement?
Greece was ordered to pay compensation immediately
174
What happened in September 1923?
The Italians withdrew from Corfu
175
What happened with German reparations in 1922?
- The payments were suspended as Germany experienced an economic crisis - Britain and France agreed to postpone the payments until the German economy recovered - However, the German President, Ebert, prevaricated, hoping for another opportunity to renegotiate payments - The French, under pressure to repay their war debts, grew increasingly impatient with German excuses
176
What did the French do in January 1923 as a result of postponing of German reparations payments?
They invaded the Ruhr, an industrially rich region on the French-German border in January 1923, with Belgian support
177
Why was the January 1923 invasion of the Ruhr justified as legal?
- It was legal according to the TOV - The French justified their actions by appropriating what Germany owed in the form of goods and raw materials
178
How was Ruhr industry affected as a result of the 1923 occupation?
- Industry in the region was severely affected - About 60,000 French and Belgian soldiers seized control of factories, mines and railways
179
How did the Germans respond to the French occupation of the Ruhr in 1923?
- As the army was drastically limited by the TOV, the gov ordered workers in the Ruhr to undertake passive resistance - Workers did this by refusing to cooperate with French soldiers and going on strike - They hoped to cause enough inconvenience to the French that they would abandon their occupation
180
What is meant by the term "passive resistance"?
A form of non-violent protest; often such protesters will aim to cause as much inconvenience as possible
181
What was the French response to Ruhr workers striking?
- 150,000 citizens of the Ruhr were expelled from the region for refusing to follow orders - 132 Germans were killed in 8 months, including a 7 year old boy
182
How did the Ruhr occupation affect Franco-German relations?
Relations between France and Germany drastically worsened; anti-French protests became a common sight across Germany
183
What led the German economy to be further weakened by the Ruhr occupation?
- It was already in a period of turbulence - Industrial production in the Ruhr was responsible for a significant proportion of Germany's iron and steel output - This production ground to a halt, and gov support of Ruhr strikers meant they had to pay them relief money as long as the dispute continued
184
What is meant by the term "relief money"?
Unemployment benefit paid to workers on strike to ensure they can afford to live without receiving a wage
185
How did the German government try to deal with the economic issues as a result of the Ruhr occupation, and what was the result?
- They printed more paper money - The effect was disastrous - inflation was already at a dangerous level, but in spring 1923, a period of hyperinflation caused economic chaos for months
186
How much did bread cost in Germany in November 1923 (the peak of the hyperinflation crisis)?
It increased from 4 marks in 1921 to 200,000 million marks
187
Who was Gustav Stresemann (1878-1929)?
- Dominant figure in the Weimar Republic - Served as Chancellor for 100 days in 1923 - Then served as foreign minister in 1923-29 - He was influential in Germany's recovery after the Ruhr occupation and hyperinflation crises and helped engineer détente with France
188
What did hyperinflation mean for the German people?
- It caused real and prolonged suffering to many Germans - Those with savings saw their value wiped out - Workers on a fixed income found it impossible to afford basic goods as their price soared
189
How did Chancellor Gustav Stresemann stabilise the economy in autumn 1923?
- Called off passive resistance in the Ruhr - Introduced a new currency, the Rentenmark
190
How did the Ruhr occupation affect the Weimar government?
- Its reputation had taken a severe blow - Extremist and reactionary parties, like the Communists and Nazis gained popularity - Parties opposed to the democratic, liberal principles of the Weimar gov won 114/472 seats in the Reichstag in May 1924
191
How did the Ruhr occupation affect international relations?
- The harsh conditions of the occupation increased international sympathy for Germany - This was especially true of politicians and commentators already critical of the TOV
192
Why had the war been going badly for Russia?
Fighting on the Eastern Front had highlighted the poor training of Russian troops, its inadequate supply lines and the lack of imagination in its generals. In 1915, the Tsar assumed command of the Russian army himself, which meant that military defeats, like the Lake Naroch Offensive, were often blamed on his poor leadership
193
Why was the government in Petrograd being left to Tsarina Alexandra disastrous?
She was already deeply unpopular with Russian people as she was under the influence of Rasputin. By the winter 1916-17, conditions on home front were atrocious - bread rationing and lack of fuel -> closing factories. Russia was the most autocratic Great Power, and as life became intolerable for Russians, they focused their anger on Nicholas.
194
When did strikes and rioting break out in Russia?
8th March 1917
195
What were the strikes and riots about?
At first, they were demanding bread and then the abdication of the Tsar
196
How did Tsar Nicholas deal with the strikes and riots?
He was still at the front line, so he ordered the Cossack militia to put down the strike, but soldiers were unwilling to shoot citizens protesting their hunger. The mutinies spread, weakening Nicholas' position as he lost army support
197
When did Tsar Nicholas II abdicate?
15th March 1917
198
What was Russia like under the Provisional Government?
The government was severely limited by the compromises it made to retain power, establishing authority over Russia with the support of the Petrograd Soviet, which had considerable influence. The Russian people demanded an end to the war as they were sick of the privations of wartime and appalling loss of life, however, the government couldn't just resign from the war as Kerensky, the moderate socialist leader of the government from July 1917, realised that doing so would be seen as a betrayal to the allies and as a strategic disaster since Germany would then be able to focus solely on the Western Front. The government lost vital support by continuing to participate in the war as daily life was almost indistinguishable from the misery felt under the Tsar
199
What is meant by the term "Soviet"?
Russian word for council, originally in 1917 meaning a political organisation for and led by the working classes of "proletariat"
200
What principles did the proclamation on 15th March 1917 suggest the Provisional Government would be led by?
- Immediate and complete amnesty in cases of political and religious nature, including terrorist acts, military revolts and agrarian offences - Freedom of speech, press and assembly and extension of political freedom to those in armed forces - Immediate arrangements for calling on Constituent Assembly on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage and secret ballot, which will determine the form of gov and constitution of the country as well as elections to the organs of local self gov - Substitution of people's militia for police with elective officers responsible to the organs of local self gov - Gov has no intention of taking advantage of military situation to delay carrying through of these reforms
201
Who led the Bolsheviks?
Vladimir Lenin
202
How did the Bolsheviks win power?
Advocated immediate establishment of Bolshevik control in Russia. Won support from suffering citizens with promise of "peace, land and bread". The authority of the Provisional Gov was so weak by autumn 1917 that the Bolshevik storming of Winter Palace on 8th November 1917 met little resistance
203
What happened to Tsar Nicholas and his family?
They were executed by the Bolsheviks on 17th July 1918
204
How did Russia exit the war?
Germany was eager to begin peace negotiations with Russia in December 1917, though the terms were harsh on Russia, ending its dominion over several Eastern European countries that had been part of the Russian Empire since the 18th century
205
When was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed?
3rd March 1918
206
What were the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?
- Russia lost its territorial rights to Poland, Lithuania, Riga, Estonia, Livonia and parts of White Russia (modern day Belarus). Germany and AH were given the right to decide the fate of these territories - Russia had to evacuate Finland and recognise the independence of Ukraine - Germany was given permission to exploit the rich agricultural land that Russia had given up
207
Why did Russia accept the Treaty, even though it contained such harsh terms?
Most Russian soldiers and citizens were war weary and ready for peace, even with such punishing terms. Lenin was determined to focus on resolving Russia's considerable domestic problems and consolidate his grip on power, rather than continue fighting the war in the hope of a more favourable agreement with Germany. He also believed that revolution in Germany would remove the Treaty
208
Where was political power concentrated in Germany at the outbreak of war?
Almost entirely in the hands of the Kaiser and his military advisers, with the Reichstag loyally supporting the war effort for most of its duration
209
How did the war affect Germany internally?
The British naval blockade made rationing necessary from 1915, and the German Board of Public Health claimed that 763,000 died of starvation or disease as a result of the blockade. The winter of 1916-17 marked a turning point as the weather was too cold for the potato harvest, forcing Germans to live on a diet of turnips
210
How was division between the will of the Kaiser and the will of the elected representatives clear in 1917?
Socialist politicians acknowledged and worked hard to relieve the Germans' war weariness, with a coalition of socialists and radicals calling for a Peace Resolution (negotiations with the allies) on 19th July 1917, being passed 212 votes to 126. It had little effect on the government but did show the sharper political division
211
Who was Erich Ludendorff (1865-1937)?
A celebrated German general who exercised considerable power over the Kaiser and the government. As the strain of war increased, colleagues feared for his mental state. After the German revolution, Ludendorff supported Hitler's Munich Putsch in 1923. He retired in 1928, renouncing his right wing views for a pacifist outlook
212
Why was victory for the Central Powers looking less likely from 1917?
The allies were receiving superior economic assistance from the USA. Although the conclusion of an advantageous peace with Russia in March 1918 provided welcome relief for the German Supreme Command, it did not last long. The failed gamble of the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare and the entry of the USA on the side of the allies made a momentous and decisive breakthrough more necessary than ever. General Ludendorff and General Hindenburg realised it was only a matter of time before the American army provided enough reinforcements for the Western Front to make the war unwinnable for the Central Powers. Germany's Spring Offensive 1918 won an impressive amount of ground initially, but a series of successful counter attacks bolstered by over 1 million American troops soon forced the Germans into retreat
213
When did Bulgaria ask the allies to agree to a ceasefire?
24th September 1918
214
Why was an allied ceasefire with Bulgaria disastrous for the Central Powers?
It left AH exposed to enemy penetration - Ludendorff collapsed in devastation with the news (no seriously - man was dramatic)
215
What happened on 29th September 1918?
Ludendorff summoned his military chiefs to a meeting at Spa, at which he admitted that he had no hope in the German army regaining the initiative. Instead he recommended ending the war asap
216
What is meant by the term "self determination"?
The right of people of the same race or cultural background to be ruled by themselves as a nation
217
When were Wilson's 14 points announced?
8th January 1918
218
What was the purpose of Wilson's 14 points?
The President's vision for peace - became highly influential as the Central Powers began to consider suing for peace as the USA were expected to offer more lenient terms than France or Britain. Established democracy and self-determination as mainstream ideals
219
What happened on 30th September 1918?
A parliamentary government was established in Germany with the aim of suing for peace
220
What happened on 3rd October 1918?
The German Chancellor, Prince Max of Baden, wrote to Wilson asking for an armistice
221
What were Wilson's specific criteria that Germany must comply with if they are to have an armistice?
- The evacuation of all territory occupied by Germany - The end of submarine warfare - The guarantee that the new German government would be fully democratic with no military influence
222
What was Germany's new government in 1918 like?
A constitutional monarchy similar to that of Britain: - Kaiser still head of state - Gov and chancellor answerable to Reichstag - Reichstag took control of navy and army - Described as a "revolution from above" - recommended by Ludendorff and sanctioned by Wilhelm with little Reichstag involvement
223
Why did Ludendorff resign?
Prince Max made it clear that if Wilson's terms were rejected, Germany would have to surrender rather than negotiate an armistice
224
What happened on 28th October 1918?
Germany became a parliamentary democracy, with the chancellor now answerable to the Reichstag
225
Despite the reforms in Germany, how did the country appear to the general citizens?
Little seemed to have changed - the Kaiser was still head of state, the military still had a strong influence on government, strikes were still illegal and the war continued
226
What happened on 3rd November 1918 which sparked the German revolution?
A naval mutiny in Kiel - a meeting of 20,000 sailors called for soviets for sailors and workers, and these were established in Hamburg, Cologne, Frankfurt, Leipzig, Munich and Berlin within days
227
What happened as a result of the German revolution?
Monarchical authority collapsed though the revolution was mostly bloodless - those standing for the old order were either on the frontline at war or put up no resistance
228
What happened on 9th November 1918?
In the face of pressure from his ministers, who increasingly saw him as a stubborn obstacle to peace, and calls for his removal by the public, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated the throne and went into exile in Holland where he died in 1940
229
What happened on the same day as the Kaiser's abdication?
A German republic was proclaimed from a balcony of the Reichstag and the new government began peace negotiations with the Allies
230
Who was Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934)?
A military hero who had been Chief of Staff during WW1 - his popularity helped him secure appointment as German President in 1925 and his death in 1934 allowed Hitler to become Fuhrer and receive a personal oath of loyalty from the army
231
How did negotiations for peace begin?
- Representatives from Allied powers met a German delegation (led by Matthias Erzberger) in a railway carriage in Compiegne in Northern France - Erzberger was shocked by the terms presented to Germany - they would have to immediately evacuate France and Belgium, pay compensation to the Allies and surrender its naval fleet just to obtain peace - Until Germany agreed, Britain would maintain its naval blockade
232
What happened on 11th November 1918?
With little choice, German representatives signed the armistice agreement and fighting stopped
233
What had the Habsburg Empire aimed to achieve in WW1 and did this turn out as planned?
- The nationalities within it generally hoped to win concessions by serving loyally in the war - However, as the home and front line situation worsened, the ties between Austria and Hungary became increasingly strained - The death of Franz Josef and the accession of Karl I in 1916 signalled new hope for a change to the status quo
234
How did the deterioration of AH begin in 1915?
- Russia had occupied Galicia - Italy had opened up another front in the Alps
235
How many AH troops had been deserted by the end of the war?
300000
236
What encouraged regions of the AH empire to operate independently?
The impact of the Allied blockade and a bad harvest in 1916 - acting independently would ensure survival
237
What happened in October 1918? - Karl I
Karl I lacked the authority to restore the bonds of the empire and so he sought an armistice from the Allies in return for granting greater political freedom to the provinces
238
When did Czechoslovakia proclaim their independence?
18th October 1918
239
What happened after Czechoslovakia's proclamation of independence?
US Secretary of State, Robert Lansing, informed AH that it could no longer consider offering peace terms on the basis of the 14 Points as the Czechs had joined the war against the Central Powers
240
Who became Austrian PM and what was his role?
Heinrich Lammasch - Instructed by Karl I to organise the peaceful dismantling of the empire - Faced with increasing pressure from nationalists and republicans, he advised Karl to abdicate
241
When did Karl I abdicate?
11th November 1918 - the Habsburg monarchy and empire were no more
242
What happened after Karl I's abdication?
Austria elected a new parliament and Karl fled to Switzerland where he died in 1922
243
How is the Ottoman Empire commonly described?
As "the sick man of Europe"
244
Why was Turkey forced to give up its Middle Eastern territories?
Through a combination of nationalism, Allied military and political campaigns
245
What was Arab nationalism?
- Had grown in strength since 1900 - It was prompted by fears among Arabs that the once "light touch" rule of Ottomans was about to transfigure into unwelcome economic and even military interference - This interference was seen as being facilitated by the 1908 Hejaz railway - The Young Turk revolution 1909 alienated Syrians, Mesopotamians and Palestinians with its pan-Turkish agenda - Arab nationalists hoped to detach completely from the Ottoman Empire and form an Arab state stretching from modern day Syria to Yemen
246
Who was the leader of Arab nationalism?
Hussein bin Ali
247
Who was Hussein bin Ali (1854-1931)?
Sharif and Emir of Mecca and Medina 1908-1917. Led Arab nationalist cause and was King of Hejaz from 1917. Stopped working with British after they failed to facilitate the creation of an Arab state at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference and Britain in turn refused to support him when his kingdom was invaded by the Saudis. He abdicated in 1924
248
What did Hussein bin Ali do even before the Ottoman Empire allied with the Central Powers?
He sought assurances from the British government in Egypt that they would support an Arab uprising
249
What two things did the Ottoman Turks have to contend with from the very start of the war?
- Several Allied military campaigns in its Middle Eastern possessions - A determined rebellion by the Arabs led by Hussein bin Ali
250
How were relations between Arab nationalists and the Allies shaped?
Through a series of loose agreements, each motivated by very different aims
251
Who was the 1915 McMahon-Hussein correspondence between?
Between British High Commissioner and Arab leader
252
What was agreed in the 1915 McMahon-Hussein correspondence?
- Arabs were promised Arabian independence - In return, Arabs would begin an uprising against the Ottoman Empire which would divert the forces of the Central Powers to a third front in the Middle East, thereby providing some relief for the Allies - The question of Palestine was not mentioned by McMahon
253
Who was the 1916 Sykes-Picot agreement between?
Britain and France
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What was agreed in the 1916 Sykes-Picot agreement?
- Motivated by the desire to settle the Arabian region under the guidance of these two European powers - Decided on the division of a defeated Ottoman Empire into British and French spheres of influence, thereby countering the earlier promises made by McMahon
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What did the 1917 Balfour Declaration say?
- Guaranteed Palestine as a Jewish homeland in response to the growing influence of Zionism - Contravened the McMahon-Hussein correspondence and made the issue of Palestine extremely contentious
256
What is meant by the term "Zionism"?
The movement to establish a homeland for Jews in Israel in response to centuries of persecution in other countries
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How did Arab nationalists feel about the 1916 Sykes-Picot agreement and the 1917 Balfour Declaration?
They were concerned, but the war was not over yet
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What was the new goal of the Arab nationalists after the 1916 and 1917 agreements against them?
To defeat their Ottoman overlords and reach Damascus before the Allies, thereby securing their dominance over the region so they could present their control of the surrounding land as a fait accompli
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What happened on 1st October 1918?
Arab nationalists reached Damascus before the Allies and secured their dominance, though this was not without controversy as Australian troops reached the city at the same moment
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What happened on 31st October 1918?
The Ottoman Empire agreed to the Armistice of Mudros with the Allies
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Which Ottoman provinces did Britain occupy by 31st October 1918?
Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia, whilst British, French and Greek troops were on the Bulgarian border, threatening the occupation of Thrace and Constantinople
262
When did the Young Turk government collapse?
Late October 1918
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What remained despite the collapse of the Young Turk government and why?
The Sultan, Mehmed VI, remained in power as the Allies recognised the need to secure post-war stability
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Why did the Allies invade Constantinople?
Seemingly to restore law and order, which were in turmoil across the Empire, but also to ensure the Turks did not retain control over the whole of Anatolia
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How long did Allied occupation of Constantinople last?
November 1918-September 1923
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How did Turkish nationalists respond to the Allied occupation of Constantinople?
They were horrified by the prospect of losing not only their imperial territories but also parts of Anatolia, which they had considered part of the Turkish heartland
267
What was the impact of the Russian revolutions?
- Polish nationalists now saw the opportunity to establish an independent Poland - Pan-Slavs were encouraged by the Provisional Government's acknowledgement of "the right of the nations to decide their own destinies" - Those hoping for political reform were inspired by the spontaneous uprising that began the March Revolution - surely now authoritarian rulers would grant political concessions to avoid unrest, and if not, ordinary Russians had proved that it was possible to force the abdication of a monarch
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How did the ambitions of nationalists increase with the disintegration of the AH empire?
- Hungarians saw an opportunity for independence as the Emperor's authority waned, something they had been eager for for some time - Slavs in Austria grew restless and disloyal in response to the introduction of martial law - Czech's approached the French to obtain support for the creation of an independent Czechoslovakia while Serbs and Croats worked together on the birth of Yugoslavia, a goal which had triggered the war in June 1914
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What happened in April 1918?
The Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met in Rome seeking self-determination. The allies viewed the break up of the Habsburg Empire as inevitable and independence from it was encouraged. Well in advance of the Versailles peace negotiations, nationalists tended to take matters into their own hands, making self determination a physical reality with new borders for Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia
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What is meant by the term "federalisation"?
A system by which individual states are given some powers to govern themselves locally while remaining within a larger state. The USA has a federal system of government
