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S295 The Biology of Survival > Topic 4 Reproductive behaviour > Flashcards

Topic 4 Reproductive behaviour Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a hermaphrodite?

A

An organism that posseses both the reproductive organs typically associated with both the male and female sexes

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2
Q

What are some hermaphrodite species capable of?

A

Self-fertilisation - can reproduce sexually without a partner.

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3
Q

What is sexual reproduction?

A

Reproduction that results in an offspring with a genome that is a mixture of two potentially genetically different gametes.

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4
Q

What are gametes?

A

Haploid (n) reproducive cells e.g., ova and sperm

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5
Q

What is a zygote?

A

A diploid cell (2n) formed by the union of gametes.

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6
Q

What is asexual reproduction?

A

Reproduction that does not involve meiosis or the union of gametes which results in clones.

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7
Q

Name and describe the three forms that asexual reproduction can take:

A
  • Fission - parent organism seaparates into two genetically identical individuals.
  • Budding - New individuals arise from outgrowths of an existing individual which split off and live independently.
  • Fragmentation - The body of an individual is broken into several parts and undergo regeneration, forming new individuals.
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8
Q

What is parthenogenesis?

A

An asexual form of reproduction in which eggs develop without being fertilised.

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9
Q

In what way do offspring produced by parthenogenesis differ genetically from their parent?

A

They don’t. They are identical to the parent.

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10
Q

What is the disadvantage of asexual reproduction with respect to the survival of the species?

A

Due to the lack of genetic variation the organisms of a species are vulnerable to sudden changes in environmental conditions.

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11
Q

What is more common among animals: asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction? Why is this?

A

Sexual reproduction as it provides many evolutionary advantages.

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12
Q

What is an advantage of sexual reproduction compared to asexual reproduction?

A

Gentic recombination and independent assortment results in genetically diverse offspring which means a species is more robust to sudden environmental changes.

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13
Q

What does the differential investment in gametes by the sexes often result in?

A

The potential reproductive rate of males exceeding that of females.

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14
Q

What are the two broad classifications of animal mating systems?

A
  • Monogomy - a single male and single female mate exclusively with one another
  • Polygamy - Males and/or females mate with multiple partners.
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15
Q

Why is monogomy the most common mating system in birds?

A

The offspring of most birds require considerable parental care, and thus it is beneficial for both parents to invest care and resources to increase chick survival rates.

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16
Q

Why is monogomy rare among mammals?

A

Gestation and lactation can only be performed by females so that males are free to seek further copulations.

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17
Q

Name and describe the three types of polygamous mating systems.

A
  • Polyandry - a female mates with more than one male
  • Polygyny - a male mates with more than one female
  • Both sexes have several partners (most common in animals that live in groups where males are related e.g., lions
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18
Q

Describe polyandry.

A

Each female defends a larger territory constituing of several smaller male territories each containing a nest. Males defend and incubate their nests.

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19
Q

What is a critical factor in the evolution of polyandry?

A

When suitable breeding sites are scarce and nests are subject to heavy predation which favour the ability of females to lay many eggs, to exploit suitable habitats, and to replace eggs lost to predation.

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20
Q

In polyandry systems, what two aspects of female reproductive biology are favoured?

A

Larger body size and a shift in resource allocation away from parental care to egg production.

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21
Q

What is sex-role reversal?

A

Where males carry out roles typically undertaken by females e.g., parental care, mate choice, and intrasex competition

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22
Q

Name three types of polygynous systems.

A
  • Female defence polygyny
  • Resource defence polygyny
  • Leks
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23
Q

When is polygynous mating systems common?

A

In species where males can monopolise females and where offspring do not require care by both male and female.

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24
Q

Describe female defence polygyny.

A

Males compete for females directly. Successful males establish a harem of females. Fights among males occur to control the group of females - the largest and most powerful males become ‘harem masters’.

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25
Q

Describe resource defence polygyny.

A

Males control access to females by controlling recourses (e.g., food, nest sites) that are essential to a females successful reproduction. Males compete among themselves for access to resources. Males with resources successfully breed.

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26
Q

Describe leks (polygyny system).

A

Males gather in clusters (leks) where they defend very small territories or display sites. The males attempt to attract nearby females attention with visual and vocal displays.

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27
Q

Define fecundity.

A

The quantity of gametes produced by an individual.

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28
Q

Define fitness.

A

The relative ability of an organism to survive and produce viable fertile offspring.

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29
Q

What is meant by an organisms ‘life history’?

A

The timing and duration of key events in an organism’s lifetime (e.g., juvenille development, age sexual maturity, age at first reproduction, number of offspring, parental investment, aging, and death).

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30
Q

What influences the life history of an organism?

A

Life history depends on the physical and ecological environment of the organism, and is shaped by natural selection to produce the largest possible number of surviving offspring.

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31
Q

What is meant by ‘life history trade-off’?

A

The existence of both a fitness benefit and a fitness cost of one life history trait, relative to another.

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32
Q

What is somatic effort?

A

The part of the total available energy of an organism which is expended on non-reproductive activities.

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33
Q

What is reproductive effort?

A

The part of the total available energy of an organism which is expended on reproductive activities.

34
Q

What is a K-strategist?

A

An organism with a life history adapted to maximise its competitiveness and adult survival.

35
Q

What is an r-strategist?

A

An organism with a life history adapted to maximise its reproductive rate.

36
Q

When would it be most beneficial to be an r-strategist?

A

At low densities.

37
Q

When would it be most beneficial to be a K-strategist?

A

At high densities.

38
Q

What are characteristics of the K-strategy?

A
  • Stable environment that is favourable to growth and survival
  • Slow development
  • Large adult body size
  • Late first reproduction
  • Iteroparity (multiple reproductive cycles)
  • Few progeny per breeding
  • Long lifespan
  • Long generation time
39
Q

What are characteristics of the r-strategy?

A
  • Unstable, harsh habitat
  • Rapid development
  • Small adult body size
  • Early first production
  • Semelparity (single reproductive episode before death)
  • Many progerny per breeding
  • Short lifespan
  • Short generation time
40
Q

What is the difference between a frog and a toad?

A

All toads are frogs, but not all frogs are toads. True toads are those in the family Bufonidae and have thicker, drier skin and can live away from water longer than most frogs, are often brown.

41
Q

What do most frog species of frogs rely on for breeding?

A

Sources of freshwater to reproduce in.

42
Q

What are the two main categories of frog reproduction?

A
  • Explosive breeders: breed over short time period of few days to a few weeks
  • Prolonged breeders: breed over periods of six months or more.
43
Q

Are explosive breeders commonly polygynous or polyandrous?

A

Polygynous

44
Q

What mating systems are seen in prolonged breeding species?

A

Polygyny, polyandry, and monogamy.

45
Q

Describe explosive breeding in frogs.

A

At breeding time, large number of males and females congregate at bonds and mates for a short period of time, leaving behind clumps or strings of eggs.

46
Q

What kind of habitat is explosive breeding common in?

A

Temperate zones

47
Q

What are some features of explosive breeding events?

A
  • Males arriving before females
  • More males than females
  • Males staying in the pond for duration of breeding and females being present only for a few hours
  • Males actively searching for females in water and on land around breeding site
48
Q

What is scramble competition?

A

A mate-locating strategy used by explosively breeding frogs where males compete physically with eachother for access to females and attempt to mate indiscriminately with any moving object.

49
Q

What word is used to describe the grasp of a male frog on a female frog during reproduction?

A

Amplexus

50
Q

In most frogs, is fertilisation of eggs internal or external?

A

External

51
Q

Males may or may not vocalise in explosively breeding frog species. When are they more likely to?

A

When density is low.

52
Q

In what habitat is prolonged breeding common in?

A

Tropics

53
Q

Describe prolonged breeding

A

During spring and summer, with the advent of rainfall, males congregate at breeding sites (semi-permanant or permanant water bodies) and begin to produce vocal signals to attract females (chorusing). Females arrive a bit later, decide which male to mate with, and approach a single male at his calling site. When the female touches him the male climbs on her back and clasps her in amplexus. After a few hours the female carries the male down to the water where she extrudes her eggs. The male fertilises the eggs by depositing sperm over them. The pair then separate and leave the pond. The male will return the next night to mate again. The female will return to lay a second clutch a few months later.

54
Q

Define operational sex ratio (OSR)

A

The ratio of sexually active males to ferilisable females.

55
Q

Why is it more common for males to court females?

A

Because males usually invest fewer resources than females in gametes and in looking after offspring.

56
Q

What is one of the most important functions of courtship signals?

A

To communicate information about species idendity as mating with a different species is extremely maladaptive.

57
Q

What should be specifically adapted to recieve and recognise stimuli of conspecific courting individuals?

A

Sense organs.

58
Q

What information may varying courtship signals within a species convey?

A
  • Differences in the quality of conspecific mating partners
  • My be involved in conflict resolution
59
Q

What two kinds of selection pressure are likely to act on animal signals in the context of mating?

A
  • Selection for conspecific mate recognition
  • Selection for mate quality
60
Q

What are the two functions of a frogs advertisement call?

A
  • To attract conspecific females
  • competitive interactions between males
61
Q

What four basic parameters are used to describe frog advertisement calls?

A
  • Intensity (loudness)
  • Frequency (pitch)
  • Duration
  • Repitition rate
62
Q

What are phonotaxis experiments?

A

Phonotaxxis is defined as the ability to move in an orientation with respect to a source of sound. Phonotaxis experiments are used to better understand vocal communication systems.

63
Q

What is the amphibian papilla and what is the basilar papilla?

A

The amphibian papilla is an auditory sensory structure in the frogs inner ear which is sensitive to low frequency sounds. The basililar papilla is sensitive to high frequency sounds.

64
Q

In frogs, what are aggressive calls?

A

Also called encounter calls, they are vocalisations given by male frogs during aggressive encounters.

65
Q

What are playback experiments?

A

Experimental protocol used to monitor the response (either vocal or physical) to a focal animal to the playback of vocal signals.

66
Q

When a resident male frog produces an aggressive call, what are the three possible responses by the neighbouring frog doing an advertisement call?

A
  • He stops producing advertisement calls and moves away
  • He switches from producing advertisement calls to producing aggressive calls
  • He approaches the resident male and initiates a fight.
67
Q

What are the two strategies in which males compete with one another to gain access to females?

A
  • They physically control females directly or control the resources female require; or they physically dominate or control other males, restricting their access to females
  • They advertise to females and females choose a mating partner.
68
Q

What is intrasexual selection?

A

Selection that influences the evolution of characters which affect the outcome of competition among members of one sex for access to members of the opposite sex.

69
Q

What is intersexual selection?

A

Also known as female choice, selection that influences the evolution of secondary sexual characteristics which determine the relative attractiveness of members of one sex to members of the other sex.

70
Q

Define sexual selection.

A

A type of natural selection which acts on traits that influence an individual’s ability to mate successfully.

71
Q

What are the two types of benefits that females gain from their mating decisions? Outline each.

A

Direct - A females choice of mate influences her immediate reproductive output (e.g., resources, help raising offspring, protection from predation, reduced risk of disease.

Indirect - Those that confer genetic benefits to a female’s offspring through increased offspring survival.

72
Q

What is meant by phylogenetic constraints?

A

Arise from the history of evolution which has bequeathed to each lineage certain features that constrain the evolution and life history traits and other characters.

73
Q

Define species.

A

A group of organisms that interbreed under natural circumstances to produce viable, fertile offspring. They are reproductively isolated from other groups.

74
Q

What are the two types of reproductive barriers?

A

Prezygotic - Barriers occuring before mating.
Postzygotic - Barriers occuring after mating.

75
Q

What are some prezygotic reproductive barriers?

A
  • Ecological isolation
  • Seasonal isolation
  • Ethological (sexual) isolation
  • Mechanical isolation
  • Gametic isolation
76
Q

What are some postzygotic reproductive barriers?

A
  • Hybrid inviability
  • Hybrid sterility
  • Hybrid breakdown
77
Q

What is allopatric speciation?

A

Occurs when a previously continuous population is divided into two by a physical barrier, so the two populations eventually diverge from another genetically to the point at which mating between individuals from the two populations does not occur successfully.

78
Q

What is sympatric speciation?

A

Occurs in populations not geographically separated from one another. Gene flow instead is reduced due to things such as different ecological niches or polyploidy.

79
Q

What is parapatric speciation?

A

Occurs in continuous populations but individuals are more likely to mate with geographic neighbours than with individuals that occupy more distant parts of the geographic range resulting in decreased gene flow across the population range and eventual formation of separate species.

80
Q

What is polyploidy?

A

The multiplication of whole sets of chromosomes usually as a result of failure of cell division during mitosis or meiosis.

81
Q

What is sensory exploitation?

A

The adaptive evolution of traits in the competitive sex that evolve to exploit pre-existing sensory biases in the choosy sex that originally evolved in a non-mating context.

82
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemical messengers that transport signals between cells.

S295 The Biology of Survival (13 decks)

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