Topic 3b: Rome and the Middle Ages Flashcards
Pyrrho of Elis (ca. 360-270 B.C.)
founder of skepticism
Skepticism
the belief that all beliefs can be proved false
thus to avoid the frustration of being wrong, it is best to believe nothing
Dogmatist
according to the skeptics, any person claiming to have arrived at an indisputable truth
Antisthenes (ca. 445-365 B.C.)
founder of cynicism
Cynicism
the belief that the best life is one lived close to nature and away from the rules of society
Diogenes (ca. 412-323 B.C.)
like his mentor Antisthenes, advocated natural impulse as the proper guide for action instead of social convention
Epicurus of Samos (ca. 341-270 B.C.)
founder of Epicureanism
Hedonism
the belief that the good life consists of seeking pleasure and avoiding pain
Zeno of Citium (ca. 335-263 B.C.)
founder of stoicism
Stoicism
the belief that one should live according to nature’s plan and accept one’s fate with indifference or, in the case of extreme hardship, with courage
Epicureanism
the belief that the best life is one of long-term pleasure resulting from moderation
Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 121-180)
Roman emperor and author of the Meditations, a seminal work of stoic philosophy
Neoplatonism
philosophy that emphasized the most mystical aspects of Plato’s philosophy
transcendental experiences were considered the most significant type of human experience
Philo (ca. 25 B.C. - A.D. 50)
a Neoplatonist who combined Jewish theology with Plato’s philosophy
differentiated between the lower self (the body) and a spiritual self, which is made in God’s image
the body is the source of all evil
therefore, for the spiritual self to develop fully, one should minimize sensory experience
Plotinus (ca. 205-270)
a Neoplatonist who emphasized the importance of embracing the soul through introspection
these subjective experiences were more important and informative than physical experiences
Vedantism
the Indian religion that emphasized the importance of semiecstatic trances
Zoroastrianism
the Persian religion that equated truth and wisdom with the brilliance of the sun and ignorance and evil with darkness
Mystery Religions
ancient religions (cults) that were characterized by secret rites of initiation
ceremonies designed to bring initiates closer to a deity or deities, to symbolize death and rebirth, to offer purification and forgiveness of sins, and to cause the exaltation of a new life
the confession of sin
a strong feeling of community among members
Jesus (ca. 6 B.C. - A.D. 30)
a simple, sensitive man who St. Paul and others claimed was the Messiah
those who believe Jesus to be the son of God are called Christians
St. Paul (ca. A.D. 10-64)
founded the Christian church by claiming that Jesus was the son of God, he placed the soul or spirit in the highest position of the human faculties, the body in the lowest, and the mind in a position somewhere between
Constantine (ca. 272-337)
Roman emperor whose Edict of Milan in 313 made Christianity a tolerated religion with the Roman Empire
under Constantine’s leadership, widely diverse Christian writings and beliefs were formalized, thus facilitating the widespread acceptance of Christianity
St. Augustine (ca. 354-430)
after having demonstrated the validity of inner, subjective experience, said that one can know God through introspection as well as through the revealed truth of scriptures
also wrote extensively on human free will
Internal Sense
the internal knowledge of moral right that individuals use in evaluating their behavior and thoughts
postulated by St. Augustine
Predestination
the belief that God has preordained, even before birth, which people will be granted salvation (the elect) and which are condemned to eternal damnation
Introspection
the examination of one’s inner experiences
Avicenna
a Muslim physician and philosopher whose translations of , and commentaries on, the works of Aristotle strongly influenced subsequent Western philosophers
Averroes (1126-1198)
Muslim physician and philosopher, who, among other things, wrote commentaries on Aristotle’s work on the senses, memory, sleep and waking, and dreams
Maimonides (1135-1204)
Jewish physician and philosopher who attempted to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and Judaism
St. Anselm (ca. 1033-1109)
argued that sense perception and rational powers should supplement faith
Ontological Argument for the Existence of God
St. Anselm’s contention that if we can think of something, it must be real
because we can think of a perfect being (God), that perfect must exist
Peter Lombard (ca. 1095-1160)
insisted that God could be known through faith, reason, or the study of his work in nature
Scholatisicism
the synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy with Christian teachings
Peter Abelard (1079-1142)
one of the first Western philosopher-theologians to emphasize the works of Aristotle
Dialectic Method
the technique used by Abelard in seeking truth
questions are raised, and several possible answers to those questions are explored
Realism
the belief that abstract universals (essences) exist and that empirical evets are only manifestations of those universals
Nominalism
the belief that so-called universals are nothing more than verbal leads or mental habits that are used to denote classes of experiences
Conceptualism
Abelard’s proposed solution to the realism-nominalism debate
argued that concepts do not have independent existence (realism), but that, being abstractions, they are more than mere names (nominalism)
St. Thomas Aquinas (ca. 1225-1274)
epitomized scholasticism, he sought to “Christianize” the works of Aristotle and to show that both faith and reason lead to the truth of God’s existence
St. Albertus Magnus (ca. 1200-1280)
made a comprehensive review of Aristotle’s work
following Aristotle’s suggestions, he also made careful, direct observations of nature
St. Bonaventure (ca. 1217-1274)
a contemporary of St. Thomas Aquinas who argued that Christianity should remain Augustinian and should reject any effort to assimilate Aristotelian philosophy into church dogma
William of Occam (ca. 1285-1349)
denied the contention of the realists that what we experience are but manifestations of abstract principles
instead, he sided with the nominalists who said that so-called abstract principles, or universals, were nothing more than verbal labels that we use to describe classes of experiences
for Occam, reality is what we experience directly, there is no need to assume a “higher” reality beyond our senses
Occam’s Razor
the belief that of several, equally effective alternative explanations, the one that makes the fewest assumptions should be accepted
What happened after Aristotle’s death?
shortly after Aristotle’s death (322 BCE), the Romans invaded Greek territory
in this time of great strife, complex and abstract philosophies were of little comfort
a more worldly philosophy was needed – a philosophy that addressed the problems of everyday living
what does it mean to live a good life?
Who was Pyrrho of Elis (360-270 BCE)?
usually considered to be the founder of skepticism
there are no major writings of his and most our understanding of his ideas stems from the writings of his disciple Sextus Empiricus, who wrote Outlines of Pyrrhonism in the third century
the skeptics main target of attack was dogmatism
Who was Sextus Empiricus?
followed Pyrrho in practical matters
he says that if someone appears to be in the room with us, we should act as if that person is in the room and assent casually to the proposition that he is
however if we are asked whether we really believe it, we should remember that appearances may de deceiving and refuse to attest that we truly do believe the person is in the room
What is skepticism?
suspension of belief in anything
main target was dogmatists
skepticism proposed that arguments for and against any philosophical doctrine are equally compelling
noted that whatever one believed, it could turn out to be false: thus, one could avoid frustration of being wrong by not believing in anything
they lived within societal conventions
anti-intellectual
Who was Antisthenes (445-365 BCE)?
he believed that society, with its emphasis on material goods, status, and employment, was a distortion of nature and should be avoided
Antisthenes preached a back-to-nature philosophy that involved a life free from wants, passions, and the many conventions of society
turned away from intellectual truth
Who was Diogenes (412-323 BCE)?
in his personal life, Diogenes rejected conventional religion, manners, housing, food, and fashion
because Diogenes lived a primitive life, he was given the nickname “cynic” which literally means “doglike”
animals are the best model of human life: they fulfill their needs on their own, they don’t have religion
What is cynicism?
back-to-nature philosophy
life free of wants, pleasures, and conventions of society
true happiness depends on self-sufficiency
quest for simple, independent natural life
cynics argued that animals provide the best model for human behavior
primary message was that nature should guide human behavior
social conventions, including religion, were human inventions: cause shame, guilt, hypocrisy, greed, envy, and hate
Who was Epicurus of Samos (341-270 BCE)
philosophy of materialism, free will, no supernatural influences in the world, and no afterlife
goal of life is individual happiness, but not pure hedonism: strive for tranquility that comes from balance between a lack or an excess of anything, life in moderation
the good life was free, simple, rational, and moderate and to be lived now because there was nothing else after death
What was philosophy in Rome?
although they are often lumped together, the Greeks and Romans differed in many significant ways
Greeks: engaged in philosophy to try to know our world, pure knowledge, democracy
Romans: technological application of philosophy and science, maximize law and punishment
Who was Zeno of Citium (335-263 BCE)?
Zeno believed that the world was ruled by a divine plan and that everything in nature, including humans, was there for a reason
ought to live in accordance to that plan
can be no accidents, find a way to get by
accept life with indifference
courageousness in suffering
Who was Marcus Aurelius (121-180 BCE)?
Marcus Aurelius was a Roman emperor in difficult times
along with the slave Epictetus, he became one of the best-known Roman stoic philosophers, who aspired to achieve serenity through courage, doubt, indifference, and practical wisdom
What is stoicism?
world rules by a divine plan and everything in nature, including humans, are there for a reason
everything happens for a reason, no accidents, all must simply be accepted as part of the plan
the good life involves accepting one’s fate with indifference even if suffering was involved
people are expected to accept their stations in life without question
only personal freedom was in choosing whether to act in accordance was nature’s plan
stoicism won out over epicureanism in the Roman empire
What is neoplatonism?
Neoplatonism stressed the most mystical aspects of Plato’s philosophy over its rational aspects
Who was Philo (25 BCE - 50 CE)?
like Plato, senses cannot provide knowledge: Philo added that sensory experience interferes with direct understanding of an communication of God
all knowledge and wisdom comes from God, not from introspection, but soul must be purified: true knowledge can be attained only by purified, passive mind
Who was Plotinus (205-270 CE)?
arranged all things in a hierarchy: first was God, followed by the Spirit, (a part of every human soul), next, the soul, the cause of all things that exist in the world
we must aspire to learn of the world beyond the physical world; there, things are eternal, immutable, and in a state of bliss
the body if the soul’s prison; through intense meditation the souls of all humans can reach and dwell with the eternal and changeless
What were the religious influences on the Roman Empire and early Christian thought?
religions from India and Persia
vendantism: perfection could be approximated by entering into semiecstatic trances
zoroastrinanism: individuals are caught in an eternal struggle between wisdom and correctness on one hand, and ignorance and evil on the other hand
mystery religions from near east promulgated secret rites, emphasis on death and renewal, purification, and forgiveness of sins, and exaltation to new life
Greek culture was recognized by the Romans as being important; thus it was preserved and disseminated
Judaism: one God with an interest in human affairs and a strict code of behavior for which one could be rewarded or punished
Who was Jesus (6 BCE - 30 CE)?
taught that the knowledge of good and evil is revealed by God and should guide human conduct
early Christian thought best described as a meshing of Judeo-Christian thought with Platonic philosophy
Who was St. Paul (10-64 CE)?
was the first to proclaim that Jesus was the Messiah
developed a combination of Judaic and Platonic philosophy with emphasis on faith rather than reason
humans divided into three parts: body, mind, and spirit
spirit was spark of God within humans: through the spirit, humans could become close to God
body is source of evil: everything that is wrong is related to the flesh
mind is caught between body and spirit: sometimes serves the body, sometimes serves the spirit
since humans are partly animalistic and partly divine, conflict is the necessary consequence
What is the relationship between St. Paul and misogyny?
often, St. Paul is seen as perpetuating misogyny in early Christian doctrine
reflects status of women in Greek and Roman culture
interpretation can lead to modern misogynist takes
Who was Emperor Constantine (272-337 CE)?
made Christianity a tolerated religion in the Roman Empire
charged bishops with the task of creating a single set of Christian documents concerning the teachings of Jesus
Christianity may have been more of political expediency than religious conviction for Constantine
Who was St. Augustine (354-430 CE)?
combined Stoicism, Neoplatonism, Judaism, and Christianity into a powerful Christian worldview that dominated Western life and thought for 1,000 years until the 13th century
proposed a dualistic nature of humans, with the body similar to animals and the spirit close to or part of God: these two opposing aspects became the Christian struggle between God and Satan for human souls
humans have the ability to choose between good and evil: explains why evil is present in the world
all people have an internal sense that provides an awareness of truth, error, personal obligation, and moral right: this helps people evaluate experience and make choices
in other words, behavior is under internal control, not external events and consequences
What was The Confessions?
in Confessions, Augustine described his sinful life, including having mistresses, one of whom bore him a child
when he was 32 years of age, he converted to Christianity
we have free will and the way we act is inside of us
we can be held responsible for our actions
What is The Will according to Augustine?
according to Augustine, individuals are free to choose between the two worlds- the way of the flesh (Satan), which is sinful, or the way of God
people have an internal sense that helps them evaluate their experiences by providing an awareness of truth, error, personal obligation, and moral right
What is knowing God according to Augustine?
Augustine asserts the validity of inner, subjective experience
inner monologue is meaningful and trustworthy
through introspection and scripture we can know God
emotional, prioritize human emotions
faith trumps everything
reason is ultimately not as good as faith or emotion
What is the experience of time?
time cannot be physically measured, but occurs in the mind
time experience depends on sensory experience and the memory of sensory experience
the past is the presence in the mind of things remebered
the future is the present anticipation of events based on the memory of past experience
the present is current sensory experience
Who was Aenicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480-525 CE)?
Boethius was a politically-active Roman nobleman, who translated Aristotle and Plato into Latin and made some attempt to synthesize them (although he was primarily a Platonist in his outlook)
Aristotle was little known outside Greece from 600-1100 AD except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius
What was the Middle Ages?
the “Dark Age”
Greek and Roman books and knowledge were lost: there was little or no progress in science, philosophy, and literature
Europe became dominated by mysticism, superstition, and anti-intellectualism
church dogma became very powerful because it was no longer challengeable
Crusades (end of the Dark Ages) resulted in “rediscovery” of Aristotle’s writings preserved by Arab, Muslim thinkers
What was Western Monasticism?
the Church institution most responsible for preserving the remnants of intellectual life in the West was monasticism
the founder of the monastic movement in the West is generally recognized to be St. Benedict (480-543), who in 529 opened the greatest monastery of the early medieval period at Monte Cassino in central Italy
What were the Islamic and Jewish influences on psychology in the middle ages?
Muslims made great strides in medicine, science, and mathematics
the Arabic translations of the Greek philosophers, and the questions raised in attempting to make this ancient wisdom compatible with Islam, were used many years later when the Christians attempted to make them compatible with Christianity
Who was Avicenna (980-1037 CE)?
physician/philosopher who wrote many books on various topics including medicine, mathematics, logic and metaphysics, Islamic theology, astronomy, politics, and linguistics
his book on medicine was used in European universities for centuries
he borrowed heavily from Aristotle but made many modifications that persisted for hundreds of years
Avicenna used a wide variety of treatments for both physical and mental illness
What was the hierarchy of the seven “interior senses” postulated by Avicenna?
- common sense
- retentive imagination
- compositive animal imagination
- compositive human imagination
- estimative power
- ability to remember outcomes of past events
- ability to use this information
Who was Averroes (1126-1198 CE)?
believed that human intelligence is arranged in a hierarchy with the highest level enabling humans to have contact with God
discovered that the retina is the part of the eye that is sensitive to light
also noted that those who had smallpox were then immune to teh disease, which suggested inoculation as a prevention technique
Who was Moses Maimonides (1135-1204 CE)?
sought to reconcile Judaism and Aristotelian philosophy
attempted to show that many passages in the Old Testament and the Talmud could be understood rationally and need not be taken on faith alone
psychosomatic illness: physical conditions caused by psych states
connection between living a good life and not having psychosomatic illnesses
understanding God not solely on faith, but rationally as well we can dismiss things if we think they’re wrong, scripture becomes a tradition
Who was St. Anselm (1033-1109 CE)?
argued that perception and reason can and should supplement Christian faith
the ontological argument for the existence of God
when we think of something, there must exist something that corresponds to those thoughts
if we think of a being in which no better or greater a being can be thought, that must be God and he must exist; a being “than which nothing greater can be conceived
Who was Peter Lombard (1095-1160 CE)?
he argued that we do not need to escape from the empirical world to know God
three ways to learn about God; faith, reason, and the study of God’s works (the empirical world)
What is scholasticism?
synthesis of Aristotle’s philosophy and Christian theology and showing what implications that synthesis had for living one’s life
Who was Peter Abelard (1079-1142 CE)?
goal was to use his dialectic method to overcome the inconsistencies in the statements made by theologians through the years
take statements from theologians and the scripture
found inconsistencies and through looking through the scriptures, he reconciled it
dealt with issues and fixed them, controversial
attempted to reconcile the debate between realism and nominalism with conceptualism
What is realism?
the position that abstract universals (essences) exist and that empirical events are only manifestations of those universals
What is nominalism?
the position that so-called universals are nothing more than verbal labels or mental habits that are used to denote classes of experience
Who was St. Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179)?
achieved considerable fame as a mystic noted for her inspirational writing as well as the beauty of her poetry and music
in addition to making other religious and musical contributions, Hildegard was also a pioneer in medieval medicine
Who was St. Thomas Aquinas (1125-1274 CE)?
synthesized Aristotle’s works and the Christian tradition
once Aristotle’s ideas were assimilated into church dogma, they were no longer challengeable
Who was St. Albertus Magnus (1200-1280 CE)?
made of comprehensive review of both Aristotle’s works and the Islamic and Jewish scholars’ interpretations of the works
observed things and wrote about them
argued that we can use reason to attain faith (build on that)
become a dogma, so Aristotle’s work became unchallengeable
What was Aquinas’ idea of faith and reason?
Aquinas argued effectively that reason and faith are not incompatible but lead to the same thing; God and his glory
influence was substantial but had opposite effect than what he desired
by admitting reason as a means of understanding God, philosophers began to argue that faith and reason could be studied separately, and thus reason could be studied without considering its theological implications
philosophy without religious overtones became a possibility and eventually a reality
What are Aquinas’ Five “Proofs”?
Aquinas used logical proofs and demonstrations to attempt to verify God’s existence
the argument from motion: there must be something that triggers change without changing itself
the argument from efficient cause: there has to be a cause that is not caused itself
the argument from necessity: there has to be something that does not depend on something else for its existence
the argument from gradation: somethings we are able to say are better than others best of all things is God
the theological argument: everything in the world has a purpose, whatever designs this purpose is God
What is moderate realism?
Aquinas took a position concerning the realism vs. nominalism debate that was similar to, yet distinct from, conceptualism
universals don’t exist in an abstract realm
they are not just concepts from the mind
concepts exist within the particulars themselves, are not independent
mind allows us to abstract the universal
they are mind independent
What is The Great Chain of Being?
Aristotle: scala naturale
everything in the universe is hierarchically organized, God on top
reality goes from a lower nature to a higher nature
very important in Western thought
main concepts: reflects God’s purpose (the hierarchy), nothing happens by change (order in the universe), consistent with biblical teaching (biblical teaching is where knowledge is gained)
What assumptions caused Aquinas to assume we have free will?
introspection suggests that we could have acted other than we did
people in similar situations do not necessarily act in similar ways
society recognizes and accepts the need to prohibit certain actions, suggesting that those actions could be performed even though they are not
What is free will?
power of the soul that inclines us to certain actions
What are the willful powers?
reason based will: understanding of universals
appetitive based will: desired particulars
Who was St. Bonaventure (1217-1274 CE)?
fiercely condemned the works of Aristotle
believed one comes to believe God only through introspection
his point of view lives on in Protestantism
What were the effects of Aquinas’s work?
it divided reason and faith, making it possible to study them separately
it made the study of nature respectable
it showed the world that argument over church dogma was possible
Who was William of Occam (1285-1349 CE)?
argued that in explaining things, no unnecessary assumptions should be made
explanations need to be kept as parsimonious (simple) as possible
by “shaving” these extraneous assumptions, one is using Occam’s razor
argued that we can trust our senses to tell us what the world is really like, and that we can know the world directly without need to worry about what lurks beyond our experience
What was the Spirit of the Time Pre-Renaissance?
two classes of people: believers and nonbelievers
nonbelievers, if not converted, were punished, imprisoned, or killed and considered stupid or possessed by the devil
astrology and magic was practiced everywhere by almost everyone
superstition was omnipresent
characterized by the behavior of peasants, kings, scholars, and clergy
for centuries there was little philosophical, scientific, or theological progress
for progress to occur, the church’s authority had be to broken (it was beginning to fall apart)
