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PSYCH 303 > Topic 3b: Rome and the Middle Ages > Flashcards

Topic 3b: Rome and the Middle Ages Flashcards

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1
Q

Pyrrho of Elis (ca. 360-270 B.C.)

A

founder of skepticism

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2
Q

Skepticism

A

the belief that all beliefs can be proved false

thus to avoid the frustration of being wrong, it is best to believe nothing

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3
Q

Dogmatist

A

according to the skeptics, any person claiming to have arrived at an indisputable truth

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4
Q

Antisthenes (ca. 445-365 B.C.)

A

founder of cynicism

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5
Q

Cynicism

A

the belief that the best life is one lived close to nature and away from the rules of society

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6
Q

Diogenes (ca. 412-323 B.C.)

A

like his mentor Antisthenes, advocated natural impulse as the proper guide for action instead of social convention

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7
Q

Epicurus of Samos (ca. 341-270 B.C.)

A

founder of Epicureanism

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8
Q

Hedonism

A

the belief that the good life consists of seeking pleasure and avoiding pain

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9
Q

Zeno of Citium (ca. 335-263 B.C.)

A

founder of stoicism

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10
Q

Stoicism

A

the belief that one should live according to nature’s plan and accept one’s fate with indifference or, in the case of extreme hardship, with courage

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11
Q

Epicureanism

A

the belief that the best life is one of long-term pleasure resulting from moderation

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12
Q

Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 121-180)

A

Roman emperor and author of the Meditations, a seminal work of stoic philosophy

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13
Q

Neoplatonism

A

philosophy that emphasized the most mystical aspects of Plato’s philosophy

transcendental experiences were considered the most significant type of human experience

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14
Q

Philo (ca. 25 B.C. - A.D. 50)

A

a Neoplatonist who combined Jewish theology with Plato’s philosophy

differentiated between the lower self (the body) and a spiritual self, which is made in God’s image

the body is the source of all evil

therefore, for the spiritual self to develop fully, one should minimize sensory experience

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15
Q

Plotinus (ca. 205-270)

A

a Neoplatonist who emphasized the importance of embracing the soul through introspection

these subjective experiences were more important and informative than physical experiences

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16
Q

Vedantism

A

the Indian religion that emphasized the importance of semiecstatic trances

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17
Q

Zoroastrianism

A

the Persian religion that equated truth and wisdom with the brilliance of the sun and ignorance and evil with darkness

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18
Q

Mystery Religions

A

ancient religions (cults) that were characterized by secret rites of initiation

ceremonies designed to bring initiates closer to a deity or deities, to symbolize death and rebirth, to offer purification and forgiveness of sins, and to cause the exaltation of a new life

the confession of sin

a strong feeling of community among members

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19
Q

Jesus (ca. 6 B.C. - A.D. 30)

A

a simple, sensitive man who St. Paul and others claimed was the Messiah

those who believe Jesus to be the son of God are called Christians

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20
Q

St. Paul (ca. A.D. 10-64)

A

founded the Christian church by claiming that Jesus was the son of God, he placed the soul or spirit in the highest position of the human faculties, the body in the lowest, and the mind in a position somewhere between

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21
Q

Constantine (ca. 272-337)

A

Roman emperor whose Edict of Milan in 313 made Christianity a tolerated religion with the Roman Empire

under Constantine’s leadership, widely diverse Christian writings and beliefs were formalized, thus facilitating the widespread acceptance of Christianity

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22
Q

St. Augustine (ca. 354-430)

A

after having demonstrated the validity of inner, subjective experience, said that one can know God through introspection as well as through the revealed truth of scriptures

also wrote extensively on human free will

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23
Q

Internal Sense

A

the internal knowledge of moral right that individuals use in evaluating their behavior and thoughts

postulated by St. Augustine

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24
Q

Predestination

A

the belief that God has preordained, even before birth, which people will be granted salvation (the elect) and which are condemned to eternal damnation

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25
Q

Introspection

A

the examination of one’s inner experiences

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26
Q

Avicenna

A

a Muslim physician and philosopher whose translations of , and commentaries on, the works of Aristotle strongly influenced subsequent Western philosophers

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27
Q

Averroes (1126-1198)

A

Muslim physician and philosopher, who, among other things, wrote commentaries on Aristotle’s work on the senses, memory, sleep and waking, and dreams

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28
Q

Maimonides (1135-1204)

A

Jewish physician and philosopher who attempted to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and Judaism

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29
Q

St. Anselm (ca. 1033-1109)

A

argued that sense perception and rational powers should supplement faith

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30
Q

Ontological Argument for the Existence of God

A

St. Anselm’s contention that if we can think of something, it must be real

because we can think of a perfect being (God), that perfect must exist

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31
Q

Peter Lombard (ca. 1095-1160)

A

insisted that God could be known through faith, reason, or the study of his work in nature

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32
Q

Scholatisicism

A

the synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy with Christian teachings

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33
Q

Peter Abelard (1079-1142)

A

one of the first Western philosopher-theologians to emphasize the works of Aristotle

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34
Q

Dialectic Method

A

the technique used by Abelard in seeking truth

questions are raised, and several possible answers to those questions are explored

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35
Q

Realism

A

the belief that abstract universals (essences) exist and that empirical evets are only manifestations of those universals

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36
Q

Nominalism

A

the belief that so-called universals are nothing more than verbal leads or mental habits that are used to denote classes of experiences

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37
Q

Conceptualism

A

Abelard’s proposed solution to the realism-nominalism debate

argued that concepts do not have independent existence (realism), but that, being abstractions, they are more than mere names (nominalism)

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38
Q

St. Thomas Aquinas (ca. 1225-1274)

A

epitomized scholasticism, he sought to “Christianize” the works of Aristotle and to show that both faith and reason lead to the truth of God’s existence

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39
Q

St. Albertus Magnus (ca. 1200-1280)

A

made a comprehensive review of Aristotle’s work

following Aristotle’s suggestions, he also made careful, direct observations of nature

40
Q

St. Bonaventure (ca. 1217-1274)

A

a contemporary of St. Thomas Aquinas who argued that Christianity should remain Augustinian and should reject any effort to assimilate Aristotelian philosophy into church dogma

41
Q

William of Occam (ca. 1285-1349)

A

denied the contention of the realists that what we experience are but manifestations of abstract principles

instead, he sided with the nominalists who said that so-called abstract principles, or universals, were nothing more than verbal labels that we use to describe classes of experiences

for Occam, reality is what we experience directly, there is no need to assume a “higher” reality beyond our senses

42
Q

Occam’s Razor

A

the belief that of several, equally effective alternative explanations, the one that makes the fewest assumptions should be accepted

43
Q

What happened after Aristotle’s death?

A

shortly after Aristotle’s death (322 BCE), the Romans invaded Greek territory

in this time of great strife, complex and abstract philosophies were of little comfort

a more worldly philosophy was needed – a philosophy that addressed the problems of everyday living

what does it mean to live a good life?

44
Q

Who was Pyrrho of Elis (360-270 BCE)?

A

usually considered to be the founder of skepticism

there are no major writings of his and most our understanding of his ideas stems from the writings of his disciple Sextus Empiricus, who wrote Outlines of Pyrrhonism in the third century

the skeptics main target of attack was dogmatism

45
Q

Who was Sextus Empiricus?

A

followed Pyrrho in practical matters

he says that if someone appears to be in the room with us, we should act as if that person is in the room and assent casually to the proposition that he is

however if we are asked whether we really believe it, we should remember that appearances may de deceiving and refuse to attest that we truly do believe the person is in the room

46
Q

What is skepticism?

A

suspension of belief in anything

main target was dogmatists

skepticism proposed that arguments for and against any philosophical doctrine are equally compelling

noted that whatever one believed, it could turn out to be false: thus, one could avoid frustration of being wrong by not believing in anything

they lived within societal conventions

anti-intellectual

47
Q

Who was Antisthenes (445-365 BCE)?

A

he believed that society, with its emphasis on material goods, status, and employment, was a distortion of nature and should be avoided

Antisthenes preached a back-to-nature philosophy that involved a life free from wants, passions, and the many conventions of society

turned away from intellectual truth

48
Q

Who was Diogenes (412-323 BCE)?

A

in his personal life, Diogenes rejected conventional religion, manners, housing, food, and fashion

because Diogenes lived a primitive life, he was given the nickname “cynic” which literally means “doglike”

animals are the best model of human life: they fulfill their needs on their own, they don’t have religion

49
Q

What is cynicism?

A

back-to-nature philosophy

life free of wants, pleasures, and conventions of society

true happiness depends on self-sufficiency

quest for simple, independent natural life

cynics argued that animals provide the best model for human behavior

primary message was that nature should guide human behavior

social conventions, including religion, were human inventions: cause shame, guilt, hypocrisy, greed, envy, and hate

50
Q

Who was Epicurus of Samos (341-270 BCE)

A

philosophy of materialism, free will, no supernatural influences in the world, and no afterlife

goal of life is individual happiness, but not pure hedonism: strive for tranquility that comes from balance between a lack or an excess of anything, life in moderation

the good life was free, simple, rational, and moderate and to be lived now because there was nothing else after death

51
Q

What was philosophy in Rome?

A

although they are often lumped together, the Greeks and Romans differed in many significant ways

Greeks: engaged in philosophy to try to know our world, pure knowledge, democracy

Romans: technological application of philosophy and science, maximize law and punishment

52
Q

Who was Zeno of Citium (335-263 BCE)?

A

Zeno believed that the world was ruled by a divine plan and that everything in nature, including humans, was there for a reason

ought to live in accordance to that plan

can be no accidents, find a way to get by

accept life with indifference

courageousness in suffering

53
Q

Who was Marcus Aurelius (121-180 BCE)?

A

Marcus Aurelius was a Roman emperor in difficult times

along with the slave Epictetus, he became one of the best-known Roman stoic philosophers, who aspired to achieve serenity through courage, doubt, indifference, and practical wisdom

54
Q

What is stoicism?

A

world rules by a divine plan and everything in nature, including humans, are there for a reason

everything happens for a reason, no accidents, all must simply be accepted as part of the plan

the good life involves accepting one’s fate with indifference even if suffering was involved

people are expected to accept their stations in life without question

only personal freedom was in choosing whether to act in accordance was nature’s plan

stoicism won out over epicureanism in the Roman empire

55
Q

What is neoplatonism?

A

Neoplatonism stressed the most mystical aspects of Plato’s philosophy over its rational aspects

56
Q

Who was Philo (25 BCE - 50 CE)?

A

like Plato, senses cannot provide knowledge: Philo added that sensory experience interferes with direct understanding of an communication of God

all knowledge and wisdom comes from God, not from introspection, but soul must be purified: true knowledge can be attained only by purified, passive mind

57
Q

Who was Plotinus (205-270 CE)?

A

arranged all things in a hierarchy: first was God, followed by the Spirit, (a part of every human soul), next, the soul, the cause of all things that exist in the world

we must aspire to learn of the world beyond the physical world; there, things are eternal, immutable, and in a state of bliss

the body if the soul’s prison; through intense meditation the souls of all humans can reach and dwell with the eternal and changeless

58
Q

What were the religious influences on the Roman Empire and early Christian thought?

A

religions from India and Persia

vendantism: perfection could be approximated by entering into semiecstatic trances

zoroastrinanism: individuals are caught in an eternal struggle between wisdom and correctness on one hand, and ignorance and evil on the other hand

mystery religions from near east promulgated secret rites, emphasis on death and renewal, purification, and forgiveness of sins, and exaltation to new life

Greek culture was recognized by the Romans as being important; thus it was preserved and disseminated

Judaism: one God with an interest in human affairs and a strict code of behavior for which one could be rewarded or punished

59
Q

Who was Jesus (6 BCE - 30 CE)?

A

taught that the knowledge of good and evil is revealed by God and should guide human conduct

early Christian thought best described as a meshing of Judeo-Christian thought with Platonic philosophy

60
Q

Who was St. Paul (10-64 CE)?

A

was the first to proclaim that Jesus was the Messiah

developed a combination of Judaic and Platonic philosophy with emphasis on faith rather than reason

humans divided into three parts: body, mind, and spirit

spirit was spark of God within humans: through the spirit, humans could become close to God

body is source of evil: everything that is wrong is related to the flesh

mind is caught between body and spirit: sometimes serves the body, sometimes serves the spirit

since humans are partly animalistic and partly divine, conflict is the necessary consequence

61
Q

What is the relationship between St. Paul and misogyny?

A

often, St. Paul is seen as perpetuating misogyny in early Christian doctrine

reflects status of women in Greek and Roman culture

interpretation can lead to modern misogynist takes

62
Q

Who was Emperor Constantine (272-337 CE)?

A

made Christianity a tolerated religion in the Roman Empire

charged bishops with the task of creating a single set of Christian documents concerning the teachings of Jesus

Christianity may have been more of political expediency than religious conviction for Constantine

63
Q

Who was St. Augustine (354-430 CE)?

A

combined Stoicism, Neoplatonism, Judaism, and Christianity into a powerful Christian worldview that dominated Western life and thought for 1,000 years until the 13th century

proposed a dualistic nature of humans, with the body similar to animals and the spirit close to or part of God: these two opposing aspects became the Christian struggle between God and Satan for human souls

humans have the ability to choose between good and evil: explains why evil is present in the world

all people have an internal sense that provides an awareness of truth, error, personal obligation, and moral right: this helps people evaluate experience and make choices

in other words, behavior is under internal control, not external events and consequences

64
Q

What was The Confessions?

A

in Confessions, Augustine described his sinful life, including having mistresses, one of whom bore him a child

when he was 32 years of age, he converted to Christianity

we have free will and the way we act is inside of us

we can be held responsible for our actions

65
Q

What is The Will according to Augustine?

A

according to Augustine, individuals are free to choose between the two worlds- the way of the flesh (Satan), which is sinful, or the way of God

people have an internal sense that helps them evaluate their experiences by providing an awareness of truth, error, personal obligation, and moral right

66
Q

What is knowing God according to Augustine?

A

Augustine asserts the validity of inner, subjective experience

inner monologue is meaningful and trustworthy

through introspection and scripture we can know God

emotional, prioritize human emotions

faith trumps everything

reason is ultimately not as good as faith or emotion

67
Q

What is the experience of time?

A

time cannot be physically measured, but occurs in the mind

time experience depends on sensory experience and the memory of sensory experience

the past is the presence in the mind of things remebered

the future is the present anticipation of events based on the memory of past experience

the present is current sensory experience

68
Q

Who was Aenicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480-525 CE)?

A

Boethius was a politically-active Roman nobleman, who translated Aristotle and Plato into Latin and made some attempt to synthesize them (although he was primarily a Platonist in his outlook)

Aristotle was little known outside Greece from 600-1100 AD except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius

69
Q

What was the Middle Ages?

A

the “Dark Age”

Greek and Roman books and knowledge were lost: there was little or no progress in science, philosophy, and literature

Europe became dominated by mysticism, superstition, and anti-intellectualism

church dogma became very powerful because it was no longer challengeable

Crusades (end of the Dark Ages) resulted in “rediscovery” of Aristotle’s writings preserved by Arab, Muslim thinkers

70
Q

What was Western Monasticism?

A

the Church institution most responsible for preserving the remnants of intellectual life in the West was monasticism

the founder of the monastic movement in the West is generally recognized to be St. Benedict (480-543), who in 529 opened the greatest monastery of the early medieval period at Monte Cassino in central Italy

71
Q

What were the Islamic and Jewish influences on psychology in the middle ages?

A

Muslims made great strides in medicine, science, and mathematics

the Arabic translations of the Greek philosophers, and the questions raised in attempting to make this ancient wisdom compatible with Islam, were used many years later when the Christians attempted to make them compatible with Christianity

72
Q

Who was Avicenna (980-1037 CE)?

A

physician/philosopher who wrote many books on various topics including medicine, mathematics, logic and metaphysics, Islamic theology, astronomy, politics, and linguistics

his book on medicine was used in European universities for centuries

he borrowed heavily from Aristotle but made many modifications that persisted for hundreds of years

Avicenna used a wide variety of treatments for both physical and mental illness

73
Q

What was the hierarchy of the seven “interior senses” postulated by Avicenna?

A
  1. common sense
  2. retentive imagination
  3. compositive animal imagination
  4. compositive human imagination
  5. estimative power
  6. ability to remember outcomes of past events
  7. ability to use this information
74
Q

Who was Averroes (1126-1198 CE)?

A

believed that human intelligence is arranged in a hierarchy with the highest level enabling humans to have contact with God

discovered that the retina is the part of the eye that is sensitive to light

also noted that those who had smallpox were then immune to teh disease, which suggested inoculation as a prevention technique

75
Q

Who was Moses Maimonides (1135-1204 CE)?

A

sought to reconcile Judaism and Aristotelian philosophy

attempted to show that many passages in the Old Testament and the Talmud could be understood rationally and need not be taken on faith alone

psychosomatic illness: physical conditions caused by psych states

connection between living a good life and not having psychosomatic illnesses

understanding God not solely on faith, but rationally as well we can dismiss things if we think they’re wrong, scripture becomes a tradition

76
Q

Who was St. Anselm (1033-1109 CE)?

A

argued that perception and reason can and should supplement Christian faith

the ontological argument for the existence of God

when we think of something, there must exist something that corresponds to those thoughts

if we think of a being in which no better or greater a being can be thought, that must be God and he must exist; a being “than which nothing greater can be conceived

77
Q

Who was Peter Lombard (1095-1160 CE)?

A

he argued that we do not need to escape from the empirical world to know God

three ways to learn about God; faith, reason, and the study of God’s works (the empirical world)

78
Q

What is scholasticism?

A

synthesis of Aristotle’s philosophy and Christian theology and showing what implications that synthesis had for living one’s life

79
Q

Who was Peter Abelard (1079-1142 CE)?

A

goal was to use his dialectic method to overcome the inconsistencies in the statements made by theologians through the years

take statements from theologians and the scripture

found inconsistencies and through looking through the scriptures, he reconciled it

dealt with issues and fixed them, controversial

attempted to reconcile the debate between realism and nominalism with conceptualism

80
Q

What is realism?

A

the position that abstract universals (essences) exist and that empirical events are only manifestations of those universals

81
Q

What is nominalism?

A

the position that so-called universals are nothing more than verbal labels or mental habits that are used to denote classes of experience

82
Q

Who was St. Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179)?

A

achieved considerable fame as a mystic noted for her inspirational writing as well as the beauty of her poetry and music

in addition to making other religious and musical contributions, Hildegard was also a pioneer in medieval medicine

83
Q

Who was St. Thomas Aquinas (1125-1274 CE)?

A

synthesized Aristotle’s works and the Christian tradition

once Aristotle’s ideas were assimilated into church dogma, they were no longer challengeable

84
Q

Who was St. Albertus Magnus (1200-1280 CE)?

A

made of comprehensive review of both Aristotle’s works and the Islamic and Jewish scholars’ interpretations of the works

observed things and wrote about them

argued that we can use reason to attain faith (build on that)

become a dogma, so Aristotle’s work became unchallengeable

85
Q

What was Aquinas’ idea of faith and reason?

A

Aquinas argued effectively that reason and faith are not incompatible but lead to the same thing; God and his glory

influence was substantial but had opposite effect than what he desired

by admitting reason as a means of understanding God, philosophers began to argue that faith and reason could be studied separately, and thus reason could be studied without considering its theological implications

philosophy without religious overtones became a possibility and eventually a reality

86
Q

What are Aquinas’ Five “Proofs”?

A

Aquinas used logical proofs and demonstrations to attempt to verify God’s existence

the argument from motion: there must be something that triggers change without changing itself

the argument from efficient cause: there has to be a cause that is not caused itself

the argument from necessity: there has to be something that does not depend on something else for its existence

the argument from gradation: somethings we are able to say are better than others best of all things is God

the theological argument: everything in the world has a purpose, whatever designs this purpose is God

87
Q

What is moderate realism?

A

Aquinas took a position concerning the realism vs. nominalism debate that was similar to, yet distinct from, conceptualism

universals don’t exist in an abstract realm

they are not just concepts from the mind

concepts exist within the particulars themselves, are not independent

mind allows us to abstract the universal

they are mind independent

88
Q

What is The Great Chain of Being?

A

Aristotle: scala naturale

everything in the universe is hierarchically organized, God on top

reality goes from a lower nature to a higher nature

very important in Western thought

main concepts: reflects God’s purpose (the hierarchy), nothing happens by change (order in the universe), consistent with biblical teaching (biblical teaching is where knowledge is gained)

89
Q

What assumptions caused Aquinas to assume we have free will?

A

introspection suggests that we could have acted other than we did

people in similar situations do not necessarily act in similar ways

society recognizes and accepts the need to prohibit certain actions, suggesting that those actions could be performed even though they are not

90
Q

What is free will?

A

power of the soul that inclines us to certain actions

91
Q

What are the willful powers?

A

reason based will: understanding of universals

appetitive based will: desired particulars

92
Q

Who was St. Bonaventure (1217-1274 CE)?

A

fiercely condemned the works of Aristotle

believed one comes to believe God only through introspection

his point of view lives on in Protestantism

93
Q

What were the effects of Aquinas’s work?

A

it divided reason and faith, making it possible to study them separately

it made the study of nature respectable

it showed the world that argument over church dogma was possible

94
Q

Who was William of Occam (1285-1349 CE)?

A

argued that in explaining things, no unnecessary assumptions should be made

explanations need to be kept as parsimonious (simple) as possible

by “shaving” these extraneous assumptions, one is using Occam’s razor

argued that we can trust our senses to tell us what the world is really like, and that we can know the world directly without need to worry about what lurks beyond our experience

95
Q

What was the Spirit of the Time Pre-Renaissance?

A

two classes of people: believers and nonbelievers

nonbelievers, if not converted, were punished, imprisoned, or killed and considered stupid or possessed by the devil

astrology and magic was practiced everywhere by almost everyone

superstition was omnipresent

characterized by the behavior of peasants, kings, scholars, and clergy

for centuries there was little philosophical, scientific, or theological progress

for progress to occur, the church’s authority had be to broken (it was beginning to fall apart)

PSYCH 303 (8 decks)

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