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PSYCH 303 > Topic 1: Introduction to the History of Psychology > Flashcards

Topic 1: Introduction to the History of Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Histroriography

A

the study of the proper way to write history

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2
Q

Presentism

A

interpreting and evaluating historical events in terms of contemporary knowledge and standards

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3
Q

Historicism

A

the study of the past for its own sake, without attempting t interpret and evaluate it in terms of current knowledge and standards, as is the case with presentism

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4
Q

Zeitgeist

A

the spirit of the times

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5
Q

Great-Person Approach

A

the approach to history that concentrates on the most prominent contributors to the topic or field under consideration

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6
Q

Historical Development Approach

A

the approach to history that concentrates on an element of a field or discipline and describes how the understanding or approach to studying that element has changed over time

an example is a description of how mental illness has been defined and studied throughout history

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7
Q

Eclectic Approach

A

taking the best from a variety of viewpoints, the approach to the history of psychology taken in this text is eclectic because it combines coverage of great individuals, the development of ideas and concepts, the spirit of the times, and contributions from other disciplines

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8
Q

Science

A

traditionally, the systematic attempt to rationally categorize or explain empirical observations

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9
Q

Empirical Observation

A

the direct observation of that which is being studied in order to understand it

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10
Q

Rationalism

A

the philosophical belief that knowledge can be attained only by engaging in some type of systemic mental activity

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11
Q

Empiricism

A

the belief that the basis of all knowledge is experience

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12
Q

Scientific Theory

A

traditionally, a proposed explanation of a number of empirical observations

according to Popper, a proposed solution to a problem

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13
Q

Confirmable Propositions

A

within science, propositions capable of validation through empirical tests

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14
Q

Scientific Law

A

a consistently observed relationship between classes of empirical events

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15
Q

Public Observation

A

the stipulation that scientific laws must be available for any interested person to observe

science is interested in general, empirical relationships that are publicly verifiable

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16
Q

Correlational Laws

A

laws that specify the systematic relationships among classes of empirical events

unlike causal laws, the events described by correlational laws do not need to be causally related

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17
Q

Causal Laws

A

laws describing causal relationships

such laws specify the conditions that are necessary and sufficient to produce a certain event

knowledge of causal laws allows both the prediction and control of events

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18
Q

Determinism

A

the belief that everything that occurs does so because of known or knowable causes that if these causes were known in advance, an event could be predicted with complete accuracy

also, if the causes of an event were know, the event could be prevented by preventing its causes

thus, the knowledge of an event’s causes allows the prediction and control of the event

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19
Q

Karl Popper (1902-1994)

A

saw scientific method as having three components: problems, proposed solutions to the problems (theories), and criticisms of the proposed solutions

because all scientific theories will eventfully be found to be false, the highest status any scientific theory can attain is not yet disconfirmed

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20
Q

Principle of Falsifiability

A

Popper’s contention that for a theory to be considered scientific it must specify the observations that, if made, would refute the theory

to be considered scientific, a theory must make risky predictions

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21
Q

Risky Predictions

A

according to Popper, predictions derived from a scientific theory that run a real chance of showing the theory to be false

for example, if a meteorological theory predicts that it will rain at a specific place at a specific time, then it must do so or the theory will be shown to be incorrect

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22
Q

Postdiction

A

an attempt to account for something after it has occurred

postdiction is contrasted with prediction, which attempts to specify the conditions under which an event that has not yet occurred will occur

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23
Q

Correspondence Theory of Truth

A

the belief that scientific laws and theories are correct insofar they accurately mirror events in the physical world

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24
Q

Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996)

A

believed that the activities of members of a scientific community are governed by a shared set of beliefs called a paradigm

this paradigmatic, or normal, science continues until an existing paradigm is displaced by another paradigm

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25
Q

Paradigm

A

a viewpoint shared by many scientists while exploring the subject matter of their science

a paradigm determines what constitutes legitimate problems and the methodology used in solving those problems

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26
Q

Normal Science

A

according to Kuhn, the research activities performed by scientists as they explore the implications of a paradigm

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27
Q

Puzzle Solving

A

according to Kuhn, normal science is like problem solving in that the problems worked on are specified by paradigm, the problems are guaranteed solutions, and certain rules must be followed in arriving at those solutions

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28
Q

Anomalies

A

persistent observations that cannot be explained by an existing paradigm

anomalies eventually cause on paradigm to displace another

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29
Q

Preparadigmatic Stage

A

according to Kuhn, the first stage in the development of science

this stage is characterized by warring factions vying to define the subject matter and methodology of a discipline

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30
Q

Paradigmatic Stage

A

according to Kuhn, the stage in the development of a science during which scientific activity is guided by a paradigm

that is, it is during this stage that normal science occurs

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31
Q

Revolutionary Stage

A

according to Kuhn, the stage of scientific development during which an existing paradigm is displaced by a new one

once the displacement is complete, the new paradigm generates normal science and continues doing so until it too is eventually displaced by a new paradigm

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32
Q

Paul Feyerabend (1924-1994)

A

argued that science cannot be described by any standard set of rules, principles, or standards

in fact, he said, history shows that scientific progress occurs when individual scientists violate whatever rules, principles, or standards existed at the time

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33
Q

Biological Determinism

A

the type of determinism that stresses the biochemical, genetic, physiological, or anatomical causes of behavior

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34
Q

Environmental Determinism

A

the type of determinism that stresses causes of behavior that are external to the organism

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35
Q

Sociocultural Determinism

A

the type of environmental determinism that stresses cultural or societal rules, customs, regulation, or expectations as the causes of behavior

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36
Q

Physical Determinism

A

the type of determinism that stresses material causes of behavior

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37
Q

Psychical Determinism

A

the type of determinism that stresses mental causes of behavior

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38
Q

Indeterminism

A

the contention that even though determinism is true, attempting to measure the causes of something influences those causes, making it impossible to know them with certainty

this contention is also called Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

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39
Q

Nondeterminism

A

the belief that human thought or behavior is freely chosen by the individual and is, therefore, not caused by antecedent physical or mental events

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40
Q

Materialist

A

those who believe that everything in the universe is material (physical), including those things that others refer to as mental

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41
Q

Monists

A

those who believe that there is one reality

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42
Q

Idealists

A

those who believe that ultimate reality consists of ideas or perceptions and is, therefore, not physical

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43
Q

Dualist

A

anyone who believes that there are two aspects to humans, one physical and one mental

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44
Q

Interactionism

A

a proposed answer to the mind-body problem, maintaining that bodily experiences influence the mind and that the mind influences the body

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45
Q

Emergentism

A

the contention that mental processes emerge from brain processes

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46
Q

Epiphenomenalism

A

the form of emergentism that states that mental events emerge from brain activity but that mental events are subsequently irrelevant

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47
Q

Psychophysical Parallelism

A

the contention that experiencing something in the physical world causes bodily and mental activity simultaneously and that the two types of activities are independent of each other

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48
Q

Double Aspectism

A

the belief that bodily and mental events are inseparable because they are two aspects of every experience

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49
Q

Preestablished Harmony

A

the belief that bodily events and mental events are separate but correlated because both were designed to run identical courses

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50
Q

Occasionalism

A

the belief that the relationship between the mind and body is mediated by God

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51
Q

Mechanism

A

the belief that the behavior of organisms, including humans, can be explained entirely in terms of mechanical laws

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52
Q

Vitalism

A

the belief that life cannot be explained in terms of inanimate processes

for the vitalist, life requires more than the material objects or inanimate processes in which it manifests itself, for there to be life, there must be vital forces present

53
Q

Naive Realism

A

the belief that what one experiences mentally is the same as what is present physically

54
Q

Reification

A

the belief that abstractions for which we have names have an existence independent of their names

55
Q

Irrationalism

A

any explanation of human behavior stressing determinants that are not under rational control

56
Q

Nativist

A

anyone who believes that important human attributes such as intelligence are largely inherited

57
Q

Epistemology

A

the study of the nature of knowledge

58
Q

Passive Mind

A

a mind that simply reflects cognitively one’s experiences with the physical world

the empiricists assume a passive mind

59
Q

Active Mind

A

a mind that transforms, interprets, understands, or values physical experience

the rationalists assume an active mind

60
Q

Universalism

A

the belief that there are universal truths about ourselves and about the physical world in general that can be discovered by anyone the proper methods of inquiry

61
Q

Relativism

A

the belief that because all experience must be filtered through individual and group perspectives, the search for universal truths that exist independently of human experience must be in vain

for the relativist, there is no one truth, only truths

62
Q

Why study “Western” history?

A

western history obviously cannot be seen as “universal” history

yet, we take a decidedly “Western-focused” tour through the history of ideas

psychology as we know it today (as an academic, professional discipline) emerges in and through the history of Western philosophy

there are nonetheless hundreds of regional, indigenous psychologies that exist

psychology, through it has been increasingly interested in and influenced by “Eastern” though, reflects the power of Western thought and the indelible stamp that the West has put onto history more broadly

63
Q

What were Hunter-Gatherer communities?

A

human psychology is necessarily social, as our heritage is found in groups

these groups have necessary but risky contact with their surrounding environment, mediated by techne

characterized by local, regional understandings, myths, rituals, and traditions

64
Q

What was the transition from myth to “truth”?

A

gradually, local/regional understanding of humanness and communal life began to be universalized

in many civilizations, this was rooted in the identification of “something” that transcended local differences and offered a higher truth

65
Q

What was the transition from concrete to abstract?

A

as local, regional understanding began to be superseded by more universalist views so to did our understanding of humanness become more abstracted, reflecting a movement away from the physical to the ideal

away from regional to universal views

66
Q

What is historiography?

A

the study of the proper way of writing history

history of psychology didn’t start until the ’80s

do we write it neutrally or try to contextualize

67
Q

Who was Edwin G. Boring (1886-1968)?

A

Boring is the most influential historian of psychology

his history was primarily concerned with the growth of experimental psychology

however, he also saw experimental psychology as only understandable when situated in the broader history of Western thought (progressivist understanding)

68
Q

What are the two ways we can “carve up” history?

A

chronologically: Ancient Philosophy, Medieval, Philosophy, Renaissance, Enlightenment

eras of thought/worldviews: naturalism, subjective idealism, objective idealism

69
Q

What are the choices of approach to studying history?

A

Zeitgeist-focused: ideas emerge because they are compatible with the times, ideas emerge given other advanced in the world, “spirit of the times”

Person-focused: focus on the most important people, at odds with the Zeitgeist approach

Historical development: hyperfocus on a specific narrow aspect and its development

Eclectic approach: borrow from all three

70
Q

What is the progressive view of history?

A

see history as a movement from a fixed end forward, always moving forward and up always building on the past

71
Q

What is the cyclical view of history?

A

recurrence, we can’t assume things are always getting better, most historians take this approach

72
Q

Why should we study the history of psychology?

A

deeper understanding
recognition of trends in psychological thought
avoiding the repetition of mistakes/errors
a source of valuable ideas
perspective

73
Q

Is psychology a natural science?

A

some thinkers have argued that psychology could never be a natural science because of its interest in subjective experience (mental events)

74
Q

What is a natural science?

A

developed to answer questions about nature by directly examining nature, in contrast to unquestionable acceptance of church dogma, past authorities, superstition, or by using abstract reasoning alone

for a theory to be scientific, it needs to be testable

75
Q

What is a scientific law?

A

a consistently observed relationship between two or more classes of empirical events which is amenable to public observation and verification

anyone should be able to replicate the results

76
Q

What are the two forms of scientific laws?

A

correlational laws: how classes of events vary together

causal laws: how events are causally related

77
Q

What is the assumption of determinism?

A

scientists tend to assume that what is being investigated is lawful

the assumption that what is being studied can be understood in terms of causal laws is called determinism

78
Q

What is the traditional view of science?

A

empirical observations
theory formulation, testing, and revision
prediction and control
search for lawful relationships
assumption of determinism

79
Q

How did Karl Popper revise the traditional view of science?

A

science starts with recognition of a problem, which determines what observations are made, scientists are motivated, start by identifying a problem

the next step is to propose solutions (conjectures) and find faults with solutions (refutations)

therefore, science involves problems, theories (proposed solutions) and criticism

a scientific theory must be refutable (principle of falsifiability)

80
Q

What was Popper’s idea regarding falsification vs. justification?

A

Popper semi-formulized an approach that tried to anchor science empirically by emphasizing falsification, which is the idea that an assertion could be contradicted by an empirical observation

this is in distinction to justificationism, which sought to find support for a claim rather to contradict it

81
Q

What were Karl Popper’s main theories?

A

theories must make risky predictions, predictions that run a risk of being incorrect

postdiction - explaining phenomena after they have already occurred

all theories will eventually be replaced by more adequate theories

science is unending search for better solutions to problems or better explanations of phenomena

82
Q

What is Thomas Kuhn’s correspondence theory of truth?

A

the notion that the goal, when evaluating scientific laws or theories is to determine whether or not they correspond to an external, mind-independent world

83
Q

What are paradigms according to Thomas Kuhn?

A

the entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques, and so on shared by the members of a given community

everything we see is in terms of that paradigm

84
Q

What is normal science according to Thomas Kuhn?

A

normal science is likened to puzzle solving and is guided by the restriction of the paradigm

science following the implications of a given paradigm

not very creative, just follow a procedure

85
Q

What were Thomas Kuhn’s main theories?

A

although normal science allows for the thorough analysis of the phenomena on which a paradigm focuses, it blinds scientists to other phenomena and perhaps better explanations for what they are studying

paradigms change as observations cannot be explained by the current paradigm

science develops as scientists are forced to change their belief systems, which are very difficult to change

86
Q

What is the downside to Thomas Kuhn’s theories?

A

blinded, missing phenomena outside the paradigm

scientists get attached to certain paradigms, difficult to shift their thinking

87
Q

What is the preparadigmatic stage of development?

A

bunch of competing ideas that disagree with each other

pre-scientific

random fact gathering

continues until one point dominates

88
Q

What is the paradigmatic stage of development?

A

normal science happens

89
Q

What is the revolutionary stage of development?

A

paradigm is challenged

can sometimes fracture a discipline

90
Q

What are the paradigms in psychology?

A

standard scientific development

variability in perspectives

preparadigmatic discipline: a ton of perspectives competing with each other there is no one big theory

several coexisting paradigms: no need for a scientific revolution

91
Q

How are Popper and Kuhn’s ideas contrasted?

A

Popper stated that scientific problem solving is a creative activity, unlike the puzzle solving that Kuhn describes it as

Popper’s analysis stresses logic and creativity while Kuhn’s analysis of sciences stresses convention and subjective factors

Popper accepted the correspondence theory of truth, while Kuhn rejected this theory and instead believed that scientists create the “reality” they explore

92
Q

Who was Paul Feyerabend (1924-1994)?

A

was a student of Popper but proposed the idea that there is (and should be) no systematic methodological rules for doing science

93
Q

What is “anarchist” science?

A

get rid of “overarching methods” or dogmatic methods

Feyerabend proposed an “anarchist” view of science

not one scientific method

94
Q

What is a social science?

A

social sciences aim to apply scientific principles to the examination of social phenomena

95
Q

What are positivists?

A

natural sciences in the way they study social phenomena

96
Q

What are antipositivists?

A

natural sciences can’t explain social situations

can never accurately predict the social world

97
Q

What is determinism?

A

our behavior is caused

know those causes = understand behavior

98
Q

What are the different types of determinism?

A

biological determinism: evolutionary psychologists

environmental determinism: behaviorism, behavior caused by external stimuli

sociocultural determinism: social/cultural beliefs are the cause

physical determinism: there is some material thing that causes behavior

psychical determinism: causes of human behavior are rooted in emotions, might be unconscious

99
Q

What is the uncertainty principle?

A

Heisenberg’s principle applied to psychology states that we can never learn at least some causes of behavior because in attempting to observe them we change them

100
Q

What is indeterminism?

A

human behavior may be determined, but the causes cannot be accurately measured

can never measure causes when we try to measure causes we change them

101
Q

What is nondeterminism?

A

some researchers reject science as a way of studying humans

human behavior is freely chosen, self generated

humans have free will

102
Q

What is hard determinism?

A

because we function automatically we aren’t responsible for behavior just robots living their programming

103
Q

What is soft determinism?

A

because we have different cognitive abilities, we can rationally deliberate on what we’re doing

104
Q

What are ten persistent questions in psychology?

A
  1. what is human nature
  2. how are the mind and body related
  3. mechanism vs vitalism
  4. nature vs nurture
  5. rationalism vs irrationalism
  6. relationship of humans to nonhuman animals
  7. what is the origin of human knowledge
  8. objectivity vs subjectivity
  9. the problem of the self
  10. universalism vs relativism
105
Q

What is human nature?

A

tendencies or characteristics that make us human

evolution/biological

essentialist: something essential at the core that makes us human

universal: trying to find something that applies to everyone

106
Q

What are the materialist and idealist views on how the mind and body are related?

A

materialists: neuroscience, understand the material physical structures, all body no mind

idealists: everything is made up of our perception, all mind no body

107
Q

What are the monist and dualist views on how the mind and body are related?

A

monists: mind and body are the same

dualists: there is a physical body and a mental mind separate but have a relationship

108
Q

What are the types of dualism?

A
  1. interactionism
  2. emergentism
  3. epiphenomenalism
  4. psychophysical parallelism
  5. double aspectism
  6. occasionalism
109
Q

What is interactionism?

A

mind influences the body
body influences the mind

110
Q

What is emergentism?

A

mental states emerge from brain states

body produces mental states, mental states impact the body

111
Q

What is epiphenomalism?

A

non-interactionist form of dualism

brain causes mental events, mental events don’t have an influence back, they are just a byproduct

112
Q

What is psychophysical parallelism?

A

body and mind are affected by our environment

body and mind don’t interact

pre-established harmony between body and mind set up by God

113
Q

What is double aspectism?

A

monist position

mind and body are two sides of the same coin

same thing emerging together

you can never really separate them

114
Q

What is occasionalism?

A

God intervenes and coordinates the mental and physical states

there isn’t contact, but seems like there is because of God

115
Q

What is mechanism?

A

behavior of all organisms can be explained as machines in terms of parts and laws

we are machines who’s components can be broken down

116
Q

What is vitalism?

A

living things contain a force that does not exist in inanimate objects

living things can’t be broken down, cannot be explained in mechanical terms

117
Q

What is nature versus nurture?

A

nativism (nature): emphasizes role of inheritance

empiricism: emphasizes role of experience

most psychologists take the position that human behavior is influenced by both nativism and empiricism

118
Q

What is rationalism?

A

emphasizes logical, systematic, and intelligent thought processes in explanations of behavior

cognitive psychology

119
Q

What is irrationalism?

A

emphasizes unconscious determinants of behavior which cannot be pondered rationally

120
Q

How are humans related to nonhuman animals?

A

if difference is quantitative (one of degree), studying animals can contribute to understanding human behavior

if difference is qualitative (one of kind), studying animals can contribute nothing important to understanding human behavior

121
Q

What is naive realism?

A

posits that our subjective experience is exactly what is present in the physical world

122
Q

What is reification?

A

a fallacy in which we tend to believe that because something has a name, it also has an independent existence

123
Q

What is the problem of the self?

A

often viewed as having a separate existence

often given attributes such as instigator and evaluator

the self as an autonomous power creates problems that psychology still struggles with today

assume that because we experience things in a certain way, there is a unity behind it

even though our bodies change, we’re still the same person

often prescribe that sense of unity a name: mind or soul

124
Q

What is universalism?

A

the goal is to describe general laws and principles that govern the world and our perception of it

universal truths are to be discovered, if we use the right approach we’ll uncover that truth

125
Q

What is relativism?

A

universal truths either do not exist, or if they do, they cannot be known

humans influence what they observe, thus the search for universal truths independent of human existence is in vain

truth is relative to the individual’s perspectives; there is no ultimate truth, just truths

truth is subjective to our perspective

126
Q

What is the fallacy of historical uniqueness?

A

many of the figures that we discuss may appear to be “simpletons” or conversely that they were somehow “uniquely brilliant”

most of the figures aren’t that different from us

made contributions, but still humans

127
Q

Who is Karl Danziger (1926-)?

A

founder of the discipline of the history of psych

what we study is shaped by our historical circumstances

less focused on fads

128
Q

What does pseudoimperical mean?

A

try to validate truths that are already true by definition

129
Q

Who was Sigmund Koch (1917-1996)?

A

psychology should take advantage of its place between science and humanities

contemporary scientism: relatively new historical phenomenon

PSYCH 303 (8 decks)

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