Topic 3: Research methods, Issues, Debates ✿ Flashcards
What are extraneous variables?
Extraneous variables are variables that may influence the result if not controlled
What are situational variables?
Situational variables are environmental factors that may affect the participant’s behaviour
What is opportunity sampling?
Opportunity sampling is sampling people who are eaisly and readily available eg friends
What are the positives of opportunity sampling?
The positives of opportunity sampling:
-Quick and easy
-Large sample can be used
What are the negatives of opportunity sampling?
The negatives of opportunity sampling:
-Unrepresentative
-Biased groups/researcher bias
What is meant by ‘operationalised’?
Operationalised means that it is clearly defined and measurable
What are the types of experimental design?
The types of experimental design are repeated measures design (same participant in both conditions), matched pairs (match participants with the most similar variables) and independant groups (different participants in 2 conditions)
What is field experimenting?
Field experimenting is researching being able to manipulate independant variables but participants are in a natural setting
What is the positive and the negative of field experimenting?
Positive of field experimenting:
-More valid and realistic
Negative of field experimenting:
-Less controlled
What are the positives and negatives of volunteer sampling?
Positives of volunteer sampling: quick, little effort
Negatives of volunteer sampling: not always representative, only certain type of people may respond
What is the investigator effect?
The investigator effect occurs when a researching unintentionally influences the outcome of an experiment
What are the assumptions of the scientific approach?
Assumptions of the scientific approach:
-All seen behaviour has been caused
-Behaviour can be predicted
Scientific methods are..
scientific methods are objective, systematic, replicable
Strengths of the scientific method
Strengths of the scientific method:
-Proof of results
-Replicable
-Self corrective : can be reformed/abandoned
Weaknesses of the scientific method
Weaknesses of the scientific method:
-Can create artificial behaviours due to controlled environment
-Some psychology cannot be observed (emotions) - low accuracy
-Not all psychologists believe in using scientific methods
4 goals of psychology
4 goals of psychology:
-Description - tell us what occured
-Explanation - why behaviour occurs
-Prediction - identified conditions of which future behaviour is likely to occur
-Change - preventing unwanted behaviour
What is null hypothesis?
Null hypothesis implies there is no effect
What are the issues with lab experiments?
Lab experiment lack ecological validity - they are unrealistic
What are the positives of independant groups design?
Positives of independant group design:
-Representative
-More valid
-Reduces boredom effects as participants only take part in one condition
-Reduces order effect (less likely to change their behaviour as they figure out the aim of the experiment)
-Reduces demand characteristics
What is demanded characteristics?
Demanded characteristics is when participants figure out the aim of the experiment and so look for cues to change their behaviour
What are the negatives of independant groups design?
Negatives of independant group design:
-Results cannot be compared as conditions for participants are different
-Not reproducible as different people are used
-Lack of control of participant variables, making it less reliable
0Time consuming finding different people
Positives of matched pairs design
Positives of matched pairs design:
-Controlled variables as they are matched
-Good for memory tasks as it doesn’t use the same person
-Eliminates boredom and order effects
Negatives of matched pairs design
Negatives of matched pairs design:
-Hard to find the matches
-Time consuming
Positives of repeated measures design
Positives of repeated measures design:
-Removes participant variables making it more controlled
-Few people are needed
Negatives of repeated measures design
Negatives of repeated measures design:
-Unrepresentative as only one person is used
-They could remember answers - increases demand characteristics and order effects
-Can’t use the same materials otherwise will increase boredom and order effects
How can we better control variables in experiments?
Better control variables in experiments with standardisation and randomisation
How does standardisation increase control of experiments?
Standardisation means keeping as many components of the research the same. This could be done by formalising the procedures/instructions eg via a written script
How does randomisation increase control of experiments?
Randomisation is used to remove researcher bias, participant bias and improve validity. This can be done via a number generator for example.
What is the result of not controlling extraneous variables?
If the extraneous variables are not controlled, then they become cofounding variables. The CV will affect the DV and as a result the results will be affected, so the causality cannot be inferred.
What is a natural experiment?
A natural experiment is when the researcher does not manipulate the IV, as the IV changes due to other reasons such as naturally occuring eg exam results
Positives of natural experiments
Positives of natural experiments:
-Ethical and practical option as the IV is not purposefully manipulated
-Greater external validity meaning the results are more relevant to real experiences
Negatives of natural experiments
Negatives of natural experiments:
-Natural event may occur rarely, which limits the scope for generalising findings to other similar situations
-Participants are not randomly allocated as the experimenter has no control over which participants are placed in which condition as the IV is pre-existing, meaning CVs aren’t controlled
What is a quasi-experiment?
Quasi-experiment is when the IV is based on a pre-existing difference between people eg people with or without autism. The variable is not manipulated, it simply exists.
Positives of quasi-experiments
Positives of quasi-experiments:
-High control due to controlled conditions
-Comparisons can be made between people
Negatives of quasi-experiments
Negatives of quasi-experiments:
-Participants are not randomly allocated as the IV is pre-existing
-Causal relationships are not demonstrated
Aim of pilot studies
Pilot studies ensures that the research runs smoothly, as modifications can be made to eliminate any extraneous variables
What factors are looked at in pilot studies?
Factors looked at in pilot studies:
-Feedback from participants
-Procedure > timings, how it’s carried out, materials
-How data is recorded ie behavioural categories
5 different sampling techniques
5 sampling techniques:
-Random
-Opportunity
-Volunteer
-Systematic
-Stratified
What is random sampling?
Random sampling - everyone has an equal chance
What is opportunity sampling?
Opportunity sampling - using participants who are readily available
What is volunteer sampling?
Volunteer sampling is when participants put themselves forward
What is systematic sampling?
Systematic sampling is using a system to select the participants
What is stratified sampling?
Stratified sampling is selecting participants using info from target population ie ratios
Positives and negatives of random sampling
+ = Removes researcher bias
- = Time consuming (all info on tp needed)
- = May result in a biased unrepresentative sample > issues of generalisation
Positives and negatives of opportunity sampling
+ = Time effecient + is easy to obtain
- = Researcher bias over selection
- = May lead to an unrepresentative sample > issue of generalisation
Positives and negatives of volunteer sampling
+ =Minimal effort needed
- = Volunteer bias > only certain type of people come forward
- = Unrepresentative > only applicable to people who sees advert
- = Researcher bias within selection
- = Demanded characteristics as parts are eager to please researcher > loses validity
Positives and negatives of systematic sampling
+ = No researcher bias > no influence on selection process
- = Potential to be unrepresentative > issue of generalisation
Positives and negatives of stratified sampling
+ = Removes researcher bias
+ = Representative > can be generalised
- = Time consuming due to info needed for target population
What are non-experimental methods?
Non-experimental methods involves the collection and analysis of data when a variable is not or cannot be manipulated
Types of observations
Types of observations:
-Naturalistic
-Controlled
-Structured
-Overt
-Covert
-Participant
-Non-Participant
Naturalistic observations
Observation of behaviour in natural setting,
+ = Has ecological validity, less demanded characteristics
- = Little control over extraneous variables - hard to establish causality, not replicable
Controlled observations
Controlled observations:
Observation in a controlled setting
+ = Less extraneous variables
- = Artificial > lacks ecological validity
- = Observer effects
Structured observations
Structured observations:
Observer makes behaviour checklist to code the behaviour: can use time or event sampling
+ = Allows for objective quantifiable data to be collected
+ = Reliable as different observers can be used
- = Pre-existing behavioural categories can be restrictive + may not always explain why behaviour is happening
Overt observation
Overt observation:
Participants are aware their behaviour is being recorded
+ = Ethical
- = May change their behaviour - demanded characteristics + order effects increased
Covert observation
Covert observation:
Observer is covered - participants are unaware that they are being studied
+ = more valid as behaviour is less likely to change > less observer effects
+ = gives acess to groups that wouldn’t normally give consent to participate
- = Unethetical - consent concerns
- = Replication issues
Participant observation
Participant observation:
Observer gets involved with the partipants
+ = researcher can get a deeper understanding
- = Researcher may influence groups behaviour
- = Researcher may lose objectivity > observer bias > open to misinterpretation
Non-participant observation
Non-participant observation:
+ = researcher more objective
- = harder to produce qualitative data to understand reasons for behaviour
- = Observer effect
Types of questionnaires
Types of questionnaires are open and closed
Open questionnaires
Open questionnaires are questions that involve answers that are open to the participants thoughts
Closed questionnaires
Closed questionnaires are questions with fixed answers, eg yes or no
Types of interviews
Types of interviews: structured, unstructured, semi-structured
Structured interviews
Structured interviews: Has pre-determined questions
Unstructured interviews
Unstructured interviews: Questions developed on the spot
Semi-structured interviews
Semi-structured interviews: mix of structured an non-structured > set questions with the ability to divert
Positives and negatives of structured interviews
Structured interviews:
+ = Standardised questions > can be replicated
+ = Consistent
+ = Quick to conduct
- = Interviews cannot deviate - less insight
Positives and negatives of unstructured interviews
Unstructured interviews:
+ = more flexible > collection of rich data > deeper insight > more valid
- = Can be difficult to analyse as there’s lots of data
- = Time consuming as no set structure
- = Observer has to be trained
- = Areas may be left unanswered
- = Less consistent > less reliable
Positives and negatives of semi-structured interviews
Semi-structured interviews:
+ = Areas of interest will be covered
+ = Insightful > valid
+ = Both quantitative and qualitative data
- = Consistency issue > each interview may be different
- = Requires training
How to design an observation
Designing an observation:
1). Determine wether it’s structured or unstructured
2). Establish type of observation and justify why
3) How data is recorded eg behavioural categories
4). Sampling > when, where, how often (event sampling = frequency of behaviour recorded, time sampling = a fixed time frame for when the behaviour is observed)
5). Establish reliability (eg, standardisation: increases with bc, time and event sampling, and the fact there’s multiple observers)
6). Test reliability - correlation graphs
Issues of interviews
Issues of interviews:
-A good relationship needed - similiarities
-Interviewer effects - interviewer’s prescence affects parts, social desirability bias, questions validity
-Interviewer bias - misleading questions
Positives and negatives of open questionnaires
Open questionnaires:
+ = Provides insight
+ = Allows parts freedom of expression > more valid
- = Hard to analyse > hard to represent
- = Open to misinterpretation
Positives and negatives of closed questionnaires
Closed questionnaires:
+ = Can be analysed + represented due to be quantitative
+ = Reliable
- = Doesn’t provide insight > lacks validity
Positives of questionnaires (AO3)
Positives of questionnaires:
-Quick + efficient
-Targets large sample, representative data
-Anonymous > more honest answers
-Different types of data: qualitative + quantitative
-No investigator effects as they aren’t present
-Standardised > eveyr person given same info > replicable > reliable
Negatives of questionnaires (AO3)
Negatives of questionnaires:
-Social desirability bias > questions validity
-Poor response rate > not representative > issue of generalisation
-Misunderstanding of questions from parts
-Possibility of leading questions
-Fixed response questions
-Biased sample > some parts more willing thtan others
Key design decisions of questionnaires
Key design decisions of questionnaires:
-Aim > enables question construction
-Length > too long > boredom effects
-Type of questions/data
-Question format - clear and concise, not leading
-Pilot study to reduce issues before distribution
-Measuring scales ie likert scale (1-5)
Correlations
Correlations explore the relationship between two co-variable
Types of correlation
Types of correlation:
-Positive correlation: +1 correlation coefficient: both variables increase/skewed towards right
-Negative correlation: -1 correlation coefficient: one variable increases as the other decreases/skewed towards left
-No correlation = 0 correlation
Correlation for variables with strong/weak relationship
Strong relationship: coefficient above 0.5/-0.5
Weak relationship: coefficient below 0.5/-0.5
Positives of using scatter graphs + correlations for non-experimental research
Positives:
+ Can provide insight in ethical way for future reasearch
+Quantifiable data > allows for representation of info on graph
Negatives of using scatter graphs + correlations for non-experimental research
Negatives:
-Researchers have no control over variables > 3rd confounding variable may influence result > causality cannot be inferred
-Only works for linear relationships
What is peer review?
Peer review is systematic scrutiny/examination before work is published
- = could be disregarded
- = less anonymous
- = institutionalized -> difference in prestige
