Memory Flashcards
Memory definition
Memory: the ability to take information, store it and then recall it at a later time
Three stages of memory
Three stages of memory:
Encoding, storage and retrieval
The three stores of memory
The three stores of memory:
-Sensory memory/register
-Short term memory (STM)
-Long term memory (LTM)
What coding refer to in memory?
Coding = how info is processed in the memory store
What does capacity refer to in memory?
Capacity refers to how much info is hold in our memory
What does duration refer to in memory?
Duration refers to how long information is kept in our memory
Coding of the sensory memory/register
Coding of the sensory memory/register:
-The main way that info is coded in the sensory register is sight and sound
-Iconic store = visual information
-Echoic store = sound
-It is modality specfic
-Sensory buffer store = info that is attended to is processed here ready for STM
Modality specific definition in reference to the sensory memory/register
Modality specific = info is dealt with by different, specific stores rather than one central location
Capacity of the sensory memory/register
Capacity of the sensory memory/register:
-Extremely large capacity,due to vast amount of info from sense eg one hundred million cells are found in the eye
Duration of the sensory memory/register
Duration of the sensory memory/register:
-Milliseconds
-Extremely quick
-Info that is not attended to, the memory trace fades away (decay)
-Sperling experiment tested this
Coding in the STM (short term memory)
Coding in the STM (short term memory) is accoustic
Baddeley key study procedure (the accoustically similar study)
-Lab experiment
-2 conditions: acoustically similar words eg bat hat cat rat, + acoustically not similar words eg tea, cat, tie, rug -> participants had to recall the words
Baddeley key study findings (the accoustically similar study)
Baddeley key study findings (the accoustically similar study):
-recall was poorer for the acoustically similar condition, acoustic condition errors were made -> recalled words that sounded the same but were not on the list
Baddeley key study conclusion (the accoustically similar study)
Baddeley key study conclusion (the accoustically similar study):
-This implies that information is processed (coded) acoustically in short term memory – the way that information sounds
Evaluation of the Baddeley key study (the accoustically similar study)
Evaluation of the Baddeley key study (the accoustically similar study):
- = artificial -> demand characteristics -> lacks ecological validity -> recalling words not reflective of memory in daily life
+ = Replicable
+ = Controls extraneous variables -> reliable
What experiments measured the capacity of short term memory?
-Jacobs and Millers studies measured into the capacity of short term memory using serial digist spans, where they recalled it in order as it increases in length
The mean digit span was 7.3 (capacity of 5 digits u to 9)
-Found that chunking increases the capacity of short term memory
The multi-store model of Memory (MSM)
MSM was developed by Baddeley and Hitch, and focuses specifically on the workings of the short-term memory
->More developed than MSM
Thee limited capacity stores that STM is composed of as part of the WMM
Thee limited capacity stores that STM is composed of as part of the WMM:
-Central executive
-Articulatory-phonological loop
-Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Central executive of the STM as part of the WMM
Central executive - this manages attention, and controls information from the two ‘slave stores’
The articulatory-phonological loop of STM as part of the WMM
The articulatory-phonological loop = temporarily retains lanauge-based information, consisting of:
-An articulatory rehearsal process of language, including any language presented visually to convert to aphonological state for storage in the,
-Phonological store - holds auditory speech information and the order in which it was heard
The visuo-spatial sketchpad of the STM as part of the WMM
The visuo-spatial sketchpad - temporarily retains visual and spatial information
What does the episodic buffer do in the MSM?
The episodic buffer faciliatates communication between the central executive and long term memory (LTM)
How was WMM found?
WMM was stemmed from research using a ‘dual-task technique’ (or ‘interference tasks’), whereby performance is measured as participants perform two tasks simultatentiously
Observations that provide evidence for MSM
Observations that provide evidence for MSM:
-If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer than when they are completed serperately
-If the tasks require different stores, performance would be unaffected when performing them simultaneously
Positive evaluation of the Working Memory Model
Positive evaluation of the Working Memory Model:
-WMM provides an explanation for parallel processing unlike MSM (ie where processes involved in a cognitive task occur at once)
-Developed based on research
Negative evaluation of the Working Memory Model
Negative evaluation of the Working Memory Model:
-Can still be seen as being too simplistic and vague, eg, unclear what the central executive is, or its exact role in attention
-Results from labatory experiments often have low ecological validity, eg due to demand characteristics and/or due to the situation being unrealistic
Clive Wearing case
Clive Wearing case -> supports the idea there are different types of LTM -> after a brain infection, procedural memory intact but episodic memory affected
Retrieval due to absence of cues/cue-dependant forgetting
Cue-dependant forgetting -> theory as to why we cannot recal from long term memory -> suggests that internal (such as state) and external (such as smells) cues can help facilitate the recall of a long-term memory
-Built on the idea that forgetting in long term memory is due to a lack of acess to memory rather than availability
Encoding specifity principle (ESP)
Encoding specifity principle (ESP) states that if a cue is present at encoding and retrieval, it will aid recall of the memory
-> if cues are different, there will be forgetting
-> some cues are linked to material in meaningful or non-meaningful way (context and state)
Godden and Baddeley Diver Study into ESP (Aim + Procedure)
Godden and baddeley diver study -> 4 conditions -> had to learn a list of words and recall
-Condition 1: learn on land + recall on land
-Condition 2: learn on land + recall under water
-Condition 3: learn underwater + recall under water
-Condition 4: learn underwater + recall on land
Godden and Baddeley Diver Study (Findings + Conclusion)
Godden and Baddeley Diver study:
Findings = conditions 2 + 4 had 40% lower recall than conditions 1 + 3
Conclusion = recall of information will be better if it happens in the same context the learning takes place
Godden and Baddeley Diver Study (1975) evaluation
Godden and Baddeley Diver Study (1975) evaluation:
+ = Practical application -> memory strategies -> eg for exams
- = Lacks ecological validity due to tasks not being realistic
- = Lack of control over variables -> individual differences (participant variables)
- = Small sample size used so hard to generalise
State-dependant recall
State-dependant recall: cues can be due to state eg physiological or emotional
State-dependant recall studies
State-dependant recall studies:
-Weingartner -> drunk/sober study -> when participants are in a different physiolocial state during recall to encoding, recall is low
-Darley -> got participants to hide money when high on cannabis then tried to find in a sober state and vice versa in different conditions -> money found then in the same state
-Carter and Cassidy -> drowsy study (anti-histamine) -> recall higher when physiological states are same as encoding again
General positive evaluation of ESP/Retrieval failure
General evaluation of ESP/Retrieval failure :
+ = Supporting evidence from lab studies as well as real life situation -> means the evidence is reliable as lab findings are objective and controlled, as well as being ecologically valid as it reflects memory in real life
+ = Real-life application -> eg crime scene re-enactments that help solve crimes + revision techniques
General negative evaluation of ESP/Retrieval failure
General negative evaluation of ESP/Retrieval failure:
- = Questionable context effects -> Baddeley repeated the experiment but used recognition task instead of recall -> found no context-dependant effect -> questions the methodology as contextual cues may not explain forgetting -> implies process of forgetting is not straight forward and other variables are involved
- = ESP not testable -> research uses assumptions -> no way to independantly establish if these assumptions are correct that unsucessful recall means cues are not encoded -> other variables involved
What is eye witness testimony?
Eye witness testimony is a legal term that refers to an account given by people of an event they have witnessed
Loftus and Palmer (1974) case study (Aim + Procedure)
Loftus and Palmer Aim: to see if asking leading questions affect the accuracy of recall
-Procedure = Participants were shown films of car accidents, some asked how fast the car was going when it hit the other, and other people were asked the speed when the car smashed the other car
Loftus and Palmer (1974) Findings + Conclusion
Loftus and Palmer (1974) Findings + Conclusion:
-Findings = Those who heard the word ‘smashed’ gave a higher speed estimate than those who heard ‘hit’
-Conclusion = Leading questions will reduce the accuracy of recall. The word smashed led participants to believe the car was going faster
Post-event discussion
Post-event discussion = when co-witness to a crime discuss the event with each other -> eye witness testimonies can become contaminated, due to them combining information from the other eyewitnesses with their own memories
Evaluation of Loftus and Palmer (1974) EWT study
Evaluation of Loftus and Palmer (1974) EWT study:
+ = Real life application -> use for the legal system to ensure accuracy in EWTs
- = Artificial tasks as clips were not real crimes, meaning the participants real reactions may be different
- = Individual differences eg elderly people less accurate in EWTs
- = Demand characteristics -> want to be useful for the researcher
Anxiety + EWT
Stressful situations cause anxiety -> anxiety has a strong emotional and physical effect on eye witness testimonies
Yullie and Custhall (1986) Method + Findings
Yullie and Custhall (1986) Method + Findings:
Method: Interviewed 13 people who have witnesses an armed robbery in Canda, 4 months after crime, included two misleading questions
Findings: Found that despite these questions, the witness provided accurate recall that matched their initial detailed reports
Yullie and Cutshall (1986) Conclusion
Yullie and Cutshall (1986) Conclusion: They concluded that this suggests that misleading information may not affect memory in real life. This study shows that EWT can be very reliable.
EWT positive evaluation
EWT positive evaluation:
+ = Large base of evidence suggesting that misleading information can lead to EWT inaccuracy, which has raised awareness that the criminal justice system cannot always rely on EWT as a basis
+ = Highlighting misleading information as a negative factor in EWT has led to new techniques designed to improve memory retrieval, such as the cognitive interview
Negative evaluation of EWT
Negative evaluation of EWT study:
- = Labatory experiments may have low external validity, eg due to demand characteristics
- = Studies usually include unrealistic senarios
- = We cannot be certain wether or not misleading information actually influences the memory trace itself; could just be demand characteristics
Inverted U-theory of anxiety + EWT
Inverted U-theory of anxiety + EWT:
When under stress, fight or flight response triggered -> makes us more alert -> improves memory for events because we become more aware of cues in the situation -> anxiety can improve recall, but not if there is too little or too much
-Can be seen as simplistic, and ignoring the cognitive/behavioural/emotional elements that make up anxiety
Three types of Long-Term memory
Three types of Long-Term memory: episodic memory, semantic memory, procedural memory
Episodic memory
Episodic memory:
-LTM store of personal events
-Retains memories of when events occured and of the people, objects, places and behaviours involved
-Memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously and with effort
Semantic memory
Semantic memory:
-LTM store of our knowledge of the world eg facts, meaning of words, what concepts mean
-These memories need to be recalled deliberately
-Less personal -> large collection of material which is constantly being added to
Procedural memory
Procedural memory:
-LTM store of our knowledge on how to do things, including memories of learned skills
-Can be recalled without making a conscious or deliberate effort
Evaluation of the different types of LTM
Evaluation of the different types of LTM:
+ = Clinical evidence - eg case studies of HM and Clive Wearing
+ = Neuorimaging evidence shows that different parts of the brain are used
+ = Real life application in the treatment for those who have cognitive impairment
Interference of memory
Interference - an explanation for forgetting in terms of one memory disrupting the ability to recall another - most likely to occur due to similarity
Proactive interference
Proactive interference refers to when past memories interfere with learning new memories
Retroactive interference
Retroactive interference - new memories interfere with old memories eg forgetting old phone number but remembering the new one
McGeoch and McDonalds study (1931) Aim + Procedure
McGeoch and McDonalds study (1931) Aim + Procedure:
-Aim = To investigate the effect of retroactive interference on forgetting in long-term memory
-Procedure = Participants had to remember a list of words until they could recall the list perfectly. Then participants had to learn a second list with a different set of words. There was a control condition.
McGeoch and McDonald’s (1931) Findings + Conclusions
McGeoch and McDonald’s (1931) Findings + Conclusions:
-Findings = Group 1, who learned the list with the most similar material ahd the worst recall. Group 5, who learned the most irrelevant material (numbers), had the best recall
-Conclusion = The more similar information is, the more likely it will interfere with other memories. Demonstrates retroactive interference. Highlights how new information can influence the acessibility of old information
Evaluation of McGeoch and McDonald’s (1931) Evaluation
Evaluation of McGeoch and McDonald’s (1931) Evaluation:
+ = Lab experiment -> controlled -> reliable and replicable
- = Lacks ecological validity as it is not a realistic senario
- = Increased demand characteristics due to lab setting
- = independant groups -> participant variables not controlled
Cognitive interview definition
Cognitive interview is a procedure deigned for use in police interviews that involve witnesses to a crime
Four components of the cognitive interview
4 components of the cognitive interview:
-Mental reinstatement of original context
-Report everything
-Change order
-Change perspective
Mental reinstatement of original context as a component of cognitive interviews
Mental reinstatement of original context as a component of cognitive interviews:
Interviewer encourages interviewee to mentally recreate the environment of the original incident
->Aim is to make memories accessible
Report everything as a component of cognitive interviews
Report everything as a component of cognitive interviews:
Interviewer encourages the reporting of every single detail of the event without editing anything out even though it may seem irrelevant
Change order as a component of cognitive interviews
Change order as a component of cognitive interviews:
Interviewer may try alternative ways through the timeline of the incident, rationale behind this is that our recollections are influenced by schemas
Change perspective as a component of cognitive interviews
Change perspective as a component of cognitive interviews:
Interviewee is asked to recall the incident from multiple perspectives, for example by imagining how it would have appeared to other witnesses present at the time
Evaluation of cognitive interviews
Evaluation of cognitive interviews:
+ = Research into the effectiveness of cognitive interviews show a high effectiveness in comparison to regular interviews
- = Focuses more on quantity rather than quality of memory
- = Problems using cognitive interviews in practise -> eg it takes a long time to conduct
Gabbert film study experiment on EWT
Gabbert:
-Pairs watched different parts of the incident, then discussed then recalled
-71% recalled information they had not seen
-Highlights the role of misleading information/post-event discussion in recall of events
Negative evaluation of misleading information studies and EWT
- = Lacks ecological validity -> watching video clips not reflective of EW experiences, many variables missing, eg anxiety, not expected, etc
- = No consequence for inaccurate recall in studies
- = Increased demand characteristics -> due to the artificial nature of the setting
- = Yuille research -> real life robbery -> recall still accurate despite misleading information -> lacks validity
Positive evaluation of misleading information studies and EWT
+ = Controlled -> replicable -> reliable
+ = Practical application -> interview techniques need to be refined -> lead to the development of the cognitive interview
