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A-Level Psychology 🌷 > Psychopathology > Flashcards

Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is psychopathology?

A

Psychopathology - disease of the mind

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2
Q

4 definitions of abnormality:

A

4 definitions of abnormality:
-Satastical infrequency
-Deviation from social norms
-Failure to function normally
-Deviation from ideal mental health (marie jahoda 1958)

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3
Q

Abnormality - Statistical deivation

A

Statistical deviation: occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic than most of the population

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4
Q

Normal distribution on a graph

A

Normal distribution - a symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern. The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak

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5
Q

Strengths of the idea of statistical frequency

A

Stastical infrequency strengths:
-Has real life application in diagnosis of intellectual disability disorders - therefore useful when observing normal/abnormal characteristics
-Useful part of clinical assessment - assessments always include measurement of symptom severity in comparison to stastical norms

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6
Q

Limitations of statistical infrequency

A

Stastical infrequency limitations:
-Unusual characteristics can be positive (ie high IQ) - so they don’t require treatments - means statistical infrequency cannot be used alone to diagnose
-Doesn’t take desirability into account
-Not everyone who is ‘unusual’ would benefit from a level - eg someone with low IQ - labelling them as abnormal lead to low self esteem

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7
Q

Social norms

A

Social norms are accepted standards of behaviour within a society

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8
Q

Two types of social norms

A

Types of social norms:
-Implicit social norms
-Explicit social norms

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9
Q

Explicit social norms

A

Violating explicit rules means breaking the law eg drugs, arson

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10
Q

Implicit norms

A

Unspoken and conventional eg standing too close to someone

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11
Q

People who violate explicit rules

A

Violating explicit rules - criminal

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12
Q

People who violate implicit rules

A

Violating implicit rules - deviant

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13
Q

Characteristics that define the failure to function adequately

A

Characteristics that define the failure to function adequately:
-Suffering
-Maladiptiveness (maladaptive behaviour prevents individual from acheieving)
-Unconventionality
-Loss of control
-Irrational
-Observer discomfort (behaviour is governed by unspoken rules on how we should behave)
-Violation of moral standards

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14
Q

FFA

A

FFA - failure to function adequately

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15
Q

Diagnosing FFA

A

Diagnosing FFA requires an assessment criteria:
-DSM-V:: Set of guidelines: includes a global assesment of functional scale (GAF)

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16
Q

GAF (global assessment of functioning)

A

GAF - part of an assessment used to see wether someone has a mental disorder
Lower the scale : higher likelihood of a mental disorder

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17
Q

Strengths of using FFA

A

Strengths of FFA:
-Easy to judge fairly objectively because we can use a list eg GAF scale
-Attempts to include the subjective experience of the individual

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18
Q

Limitations of FFA

A

Limitations of FFA:
-Related to cultural ideas of how people should live their life
-Difficult to know if someone is really FFA or just deviating from social norms
-Person is judging their FFA - objectivity?

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19
Q

Strengths of the abornal definition ‘deviation from social norms’

A

Strengths of the abornal definition ‘deviation from social norms’
-Comprehensive - broad range of critera - helps people seek mental health services
-Social dimension to abnormality: alternative to idea of ‘being sick in the head’

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20
Q

Limitations of the abnormal definition ‘deviation from social norms’

A

Limitations of the abnormal definition ‘deviation from social norms’:
-Social norms vary with culture
-Unrealistic - people grow out of deviation
-Norms vary with time

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21
Q

Jahoda (1958) criteria for ideal mental health (PRAISE)

A

Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health (PRAISE)
Positive self attitude
Resistance to stress
Accurate perception of reality
Inidividual autonomy (ability to make own descisions about what is right)
Self actualisation (striving to fulfil your full potential)
Environmental master y (adapt to situations)

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21
Q

Jahoda (1958) criteria for ideal mental health (PRAISE)

A

Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health (PRAISE)
Positive self attitude
Resistance to stress
Accurate perception of reality
Inidividual autonomy (ability to make own descisions about what is right)
Self actualisation (striving to fulfil your full potential)
Environmental master y (adapt to situations)

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22
Q

Limitations of ‘deviation from ideal mental health’

A

Limitations of ‘deviation from ideal mental health’:
-Difficulty of meeting all criteria (PRAISE) - invalidates people’s mental health
-Cultural relativism: based on western idea of mental health

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23
Q

The 3 characteristics of phobias

A

3 types of phobias:
-Behaviour
-Emotional
-Cognitive

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24
Q

Behavioural characteristics - phobias

A

Behavioural characteristics of phobias:
-Panic
-Avoidance
-Endurance

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25
Q

Emotional characteristics- phobias

A

Emotional phobias:
-Anxiety
-Fear
-Emotional response is unreasonable: Disproportionate to the threat posed

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26
Q

Cognitive characteristics - phobias

A

Cognitive phobias:
-Selective attention to the phobic stimulus.
-Irrational beliefs
-Cognitive distortions

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27
Q

Definition of phobias

A

Phobias = anxiety disorders which interferes with daily living - instance of irrational fear that produced an avoidance

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28
Q

DSM-V

A

DSM-V is a criteria for diagnosing people with phobias:
-Persistent fears of object/situation
-Rapid anxiety response after phobic stimulus
-Excessive fear
-Phobic reactions interfere with individual’s life

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29
Q

Behavioural approach for how behaviours are learnt

A

Behaviour are learnt through:
-Classical conditioning (learning through association)
-Operant conditioning (learning through consequence)

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30
Q

Reinforcement and phobias

A

Positive and negative reinforcement increases likelihood of behaviours being repeated

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31
Q

Punishment and phobias

A

Positive and negative punishment decreases the likelihood of behaviours being repeated

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32
Q

Operant conditioning and phobias

A

Phobias are maintained through operant conditioning -

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33
Q

Mowrer’s two process model

A

Mowrer’s two process model:
Process 1- Development of phobias through classical conditioning = phobia develops through association of a neutral stimulus and a fear response
Process 2 - Maintenance of phobias through operant conditioning = Avoidance behaviours - escaping the stimulus to reduce anxiety = negative reinforcement (positive outcome of reduced anxiety from the removal of something negative)

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34
Q

Social learning theory and phobias

A

Social learning theory argues phobias are leant through the processes of observation and imitation - via role models

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35
Q

Generalisation and phobias

A

Generalisation in phobias is when people associate other objects/situations to their phobia due to similar characteristics

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36
Q

Counterconditioning

A

Counterconditioning: therapeutic technique where a client learns a new response to a stimulus that previously elicited an undesirable behaviour
-Two types: Aversive + Exposure

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37
Q

Aversive conditioning

A

Aversive conditioning: uses an unpleasant stimulus to stop an undesirable behaviour eg to eliminate addictive behaviours

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38
Q

Exposure therapy

A

Exposure therapy: therapist treats the phobia by presenting them with object/situation thats causing the problem

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39
Q

Flooding (exposure therapy)

A

Flooding: exposing the phobia to change the association (eg given relaxation techniques when in face with the fear)

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40
Q

Systematic desensitisation

A

Systematic desensitisation: tries to change individuals associations: individual makes a fear hierarchy, and they are given relaxation techniques for each fear

41
Q

Limitations of flooding technique

A

Flooding at the early stage can be distressing

42
Q

Limitation of systematic desensitisation

A

Limitation of systematic desensitisation: slow process

43
Q

3 characteristics of depression

A

Characteristics of depression:
-Emotional: negative emotions - sadness, loss of interest and sometimes anger
-Behavioural - reduced or increased activity related to energy levels, sleep and/or eating
-Cognitive - irrational, negative thoughts and self-beliefs that are self-fulfilling

44
Q

3 characteristics of OCD

A

3 characteristics of OCD:
-Emotional: anxiety and distress, and awareness that this is excessive, leading to shame
-Behavioural: compulsive behaviour to reduce obsessive thoughts, not connected in a realistic way
-Cognitive: recurrent, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts (obsessions), more than everyday worries, cognitive coping strategies that have been created by the individual, self awareness of excessive anxiety

45
Q

Ellis’ ABC model (1962) for explaining depression (using the cognitive approach)

A

ABC model (cognitive approach for explaining depression):
-Activating event leads to rational or irrational belief, which then leads to consequence
-Mustabatory thinking (eg wanting to be liked) - causes depression and dissapointment

46
Q

Beck’s negative triad (1967) for explaining depression (using the cognitive approach)

A

Beck’s negative tried (1967) for explaining depression (using the cognitive approach):
-Negative schema = develops in childhood (eg parental rejection), leads to cognitive biases
-Negative triad = irrational and negative view of self, the world and the future

47
Q

Ellis’ ABC model (1962) meaning

A

ABC model:
A = refers to an activating event
B = the belief, which may be rational or irrational
C = the consequence - rational beliefs lead to healthy emotions wheras irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotions

48
Q

Mustabatory thinking

A

Mustabatory thinking - the source of irrational beliefs - thinking that certain ideas or assumptions must be true in order for an individual to be happy

49
Q

Mustabatory thinking

A

Mustabatory thinking - the source of irrational beliefs - thinking that certain ideas or assumptions must be true in order for an individual to be happy

50
Q

3 key elements of Beck’s negative triad (1967)

A

3 key elements of beck’s negative triad (1967):
-Negative view of the self
-Negative view of the world
-Negative view of the future

51
Q

Positives of using the cognitive approach to explaining depression

A

Positives of the cognitive approach to explaining depression include:
-Support for the role of irrational thinking - negative thoughts lead to depression but does not cause it
-Practical applications in therapy - as it supprts the role of irrational thinking

52
Q

Negative of the use of cognitive approach to explaining depression

A

Negative of the cognitive approach to explaining depression - blames the client and ignores situational factors - recovery may depend on recognizing environmental factors

53
Q

How the cognitive approach is used to explain depression

A

The cognitive approach focuses on an individual’s negative thoughts, irrational beliefs and misinterpretation of events as being the cause of depression

54
Q

Two main ‘schools of thought’ as to how faulty cognitions cause depression

A

2 main ‘schools of thought’ as to how faulty cognitions cause depression: Beck and Ellis

55
Q

Basic assumptions of the two main schools of thought (Beck+Ellis) as to how faulty cognitions cause depression

A

Basic assumptions:
-The mind is like a computer
-Abnormality is due to irrational or faulty thought processes
Input > processing > output

56
Q

Aaron Beck

A

Aaron Beck suggested there is a cognitive explanation as to why some people are more vulnerable to depression than other

57
Q

Three parts suggested by Aaron beck to explain cognitive vulnerability

A

3 parts to cognitive vulnerability:
1- Faulty information processing
2- Negative self-schemas
3- The negative triad

58
Q

Faulty information processing

A

Faulty information processing - Beck believed people who are depressed make fundamental eeors in logic
-Depressed people selectively attends to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positive aspects
-Blowing small problems out of proportion with black and white thinkings - ignoring middle ground

59
Q

Negative self-schemas in explaining depression

A

Negative self-schemas:
Interprets all information about themselves in a negative way

60
Q

Schema definition

A

Schemas are building blocks of knowledge - package of ideas and information that has developed with experience

61
Q

Aim of the Weissman and Beck experiment (1978)

A

Weissman and Beck’s aim for their experiment = to investigate the thought processes of depressed people to establish if they make use of negative schemas

62
Q

Weissman and Beck (1978) method

A

Weissman and Beck (1978) method:
Thought processes were measured using the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS) - parts filled out questionnaire (disagree/agree with statements

63
Q

Results of Weissman and Beck (1978)

A

Results of Weissman and Beck (1978):
Depressed participants made more negative assessments than non-depressed people - when given some therapy to challenge and change their negative schemas there was an improvement in self-rating

64
Q

Conlusion of Weissman and Beck (1978

A

Conlusion of Weissman and Beck (1978):
Depression involves the use of negative schemas

65
Q

The negative triad (Beck’s model of depression 1979)

A

Negative triad - a cycle of negative thoughts as proposed by Beck
Negative view of self > Negative view of future > Negative view of the world

66
Q

Albert Ellis

A

Ellis proposed good mental health is result of rational thinking
-Argued there are common irrational beliefs that underlie much depression and sufferes have based their lives on these beliefs ie being sucessful

67
Q

Definition of irrational thoughts

A

Irrational thoughts - any thoughts that interfere with us being happy and free from pain

68
Q

Ellis’ ABC model

A

Ellis ABC model:
(A) an Activating event causes
(B) an individuals Beliefs which results in
(C) a Consequence

69
Q

Alternative explanations to explaining depression (other than cognitive)

A

Alternative explanations of depression:
-Biological approach - suggests genes and neurotransmitters can cause depression - evidence in drug therapies
-Diathesis-stress approach (suggests individuals with genetic vulnerability for depression more prone to effects of living in a negative environmental which leads to negative irrational thinking)

70
Q

Evaluation of Beck’s theory for depression

A

Evaluation of Beck’s theory:
-Good supporting evidence
-Practical application in CBT
-Does not explain all aspects of depression

71
Q

Evaluation of Ellis’ theory

A

Evaluation of Ellis’ theory:
-Only offers partial explanation (not all depressions arises as a result of an obvious cause)
-Practical explanation in CBT (challenging the irrational negative beliefs to relieve symptoms)
-Does not explain all aspects of depression (eg hallucinations or anger)

72
Q

Trichotillomania

A

Trichotillomania - excessive hair pulling

73
Q

Genetic explanations of OCD

A

Genetic explanations of OCD:
-Predisposition may be inherited
-OCD is polygenic (more than 1 specific gene has been identified in the onset of OCD)
-Candidate genes

74
Q

Candidate genes

A

Candidate genes = the ones which, through research, have been implicated in the development of OCD

75
Q

Dopamine

A

Dopamine - pleasure neurotransmitter - feelings of pleasure, addiction, movement and motivation - people repeat behaviours that lead to dopamine release

76
Q

Serotonin

A

Serotonin = mood neurotransmitter = contributes to well-being and happiness; helps sleep cycle and digestive system regulation. Affected by exercise and light exposure

77
Q

COMT gene

A

COMT gene = helps to reduce the action of dopamine - variation in the COMT gene decreases amount of COMT available therefore dopamine is not controlled - therefore there is too much dopamine (associated with OCD)

78
Q

The SERT gene

A

SERT gene = affects the transport of serotonin, creating lower levels of this neurotransmitter. Low levels of serotonin have been implicated with OCD

79
Q

Nestadt et al (2000)

A

Nestadt et al (2000):
-80 patients with OCD, 343 of their near relatives compared with control group without mental illness and their relatives
-Strong link with near family - 5x greater risk if had first degree relative

80
Q

Diathesis-stress model

A

Diathesis-stress model = suggests that people gain a vulnerability towards OCD through genes but an environmental stressor is also required eg a stressful event such as grief

81
Q

What is the frontal lobe of the brain responsible for?

A

The frontal lobe of the brain is responsible for thinking, memory, behaviour and movement

82
Q

What is the parietal lobe of the brain responsible for?

A

The parietal lobe of the brain is responsible for language and touch

83
Q

What is the temporal lobe responsible for?

A

The temporal lobe is responsible for hearing, learning and feelings

84
Q

What is the occipital lobe responsible for?

A

Occipital lobe is responsible for sight

85
Q

What is the brain stem responsible for?

A

The brain stem is responsible for breathing, heart rate and temperature

86
Q

What is cerebellum responsible for?

A

Cerebellum is responsible for balance and coordination

87
Q

What are the neural explanations for OCD?

A

Neural explanations of OCD refer to the genes associated with OCD being likely to affect the levels of key neurotransmitters as well as the structure of the brain:
-Serotonin - low levels
-Dopamine - high levels

88
Q

What is the thalamus responsible for?

A

Thalamus is an area of the brain, functions include cleaning, checking and other safety behaviours

89
Q

How does OFC (orbital frontal cortex) relate with the thalamus in reference to OCD?

A

-In OCD, the OFC and the thalamus are believed to be overactive
-Overactive thalamus results in an increased motivation to clean or check for safety
-Overactive thalamus causes an overactive OFC
-Overactive OFC = increased anxiety = increased planning to avoid anxiety

90
Q

Function of the OFC (orbital frontal cortex)

A

The OFC is involved in decision making and worry about social and other behaviour

91
Q

Main symptoms of OCD as declared by DSM

A

DSM describes main symptoms of OCD as being:
-Recurrent obsessions and compulsions
-Recognition by the individual that the obsessions and compulsions are excessive and/or unreasonable
-The person is distressed or impaired, and daily life is disrupted by the obsessions and compulsions

92
Q

AO3 research evidence for the biological explanation of OCD

A

AO3 research evidence for the biological explanation of OCD
-Szechtman et al (1998): high dose of drugs that enhance dopamine induces movements resembling compulsive behaviors found in OCD patients (animal studies)
-Pigott et al (1992): antidepressant drugs that increase serotonin activity have been seen to reduce OCD symptoms

93
Q

Drug therapy

A

Drug therapy - biological therapy for anxiety disorders - assumes there is a chemical imbalance - either increaeses or decreases neurotransmitter levels

94
Q

SSRIs

A

SSRIs = selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors = treats OCD symptoms = increases a certain neurotransmitter by preventing the re-absorption of serotonin

95
Q

Positive evaluation of drug therapy for OCD

A

Positive evaluation of drug therapy for OCD:
-Effective at tackling OCD symptoms
-Drugs are cost-effective and non-disruptive

96
Q

Negative evaluation of drug therapy for OCD

A

Negative evaluation of drug therapy for OCD:
-Potential side effects
-Hard to come off, dosage has to be slowly decreased can take up to 6 months - risk of relapse
-Unreliable evidence for drug treatments - some drug companies don’t publish study results - therefore drug effectiveness is not completely trustworthy’
-Some cases of OCD follow trauma - not entirely biological

97
Q

Cognitive bias definition

A

A cognitive bias is an error in how we process information about ourselves. They can lead us to focus on the negatives of experiences and block positive memories.

98
Q

Strengths of CBT

A

Strengths of CBT:
Allows the client to take control – builds self-esteem.
Less reliance on drugs than other methods.
Does work for many people - Ellis (1957) claimed a 90% success rate for REBT, taking an average of 27 sessions to complete the treatment.

99
Q

Limitations of CBT

A

Limitations of CBT:
Requires Individual motivation.
Relies on the competence of the therapist.
Works best combined with drugs.
Can be expensive and difficult to access (long waiting lists on NHS)

100
Q

Evaluation of the cognitive approach for depression

A

Evaluation of the cognitive approach for depression:
Strengths = It has practical applications. CBT is a successful therapy which challenges irrational beliefs.

Limitations =
Some types of depression occur with no activating event - reactive depression.
Ignores biochemical explanations for depression.
Not all patients are able to engage with CBT or find it useful.

A-Level Psychology 🌷 (9 decks)

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