Topic 3- Medicine Through Time Flashcards
How did you feel when the 4 humours were out of balance?
Unwell
Illness occurs when you feel too much or too little of one of the humours.
Who developed the theory of opposites?
Galen
What was uroscopy?
The study of urine
Doctors would look and taste a patients urine to try to see which of the 4 humours were out of balance.
Would also use a urine chart. Samples were matched against a colour, which helped make a diagnosis
What was the zodiac man?
An astrological chart of the human body, linked to start signs
Surgeons believed it showed them when they could operate on different parts of the body
Was a continuation of superstition in medical knowledge and did not improve medicine
What was alchemy and how did it help to develop medicine?
The attempt to turn base metals into gold.
During the process lots of new equipment was invented which were then used to make herbal potions
What does the Renaissance stand for?
Rebirth.
When was the Renaissance and what were some major developments?
1500-1700
Famous for discoveries in science, geography and art. It led to a breakthrough in medicine.
developments in the printing press and technology
In the Middle Ages, what two things were used to bleed people?
Leeches
Special tools
What was Vesalius’s specialism?
Anatomy
What happened before Vesalius ?
That the books of Galen and other ancient doctors were correct
Church against dissection, surgeons only allowed to dissect corpse of criminals
No fridges to preserve bodies
What did Vesalius prove?
Galen said jaw was made of two pieces of bone, Vesalius proved it was just one
Galen said blood moves from one side of the heart to the other through holes is the septum. Vesalius proved this wrong.
Galen said liver has fives lobes. Vesalius proves it has two.
What factors helped Vesalius to make his discoveries?
Printing- book printed widely
Challenged beliefs
Individual skill
Art- accurate drawings
Dissections- was finally allowed on humans
What was Pare’s specialism?
Surgery
What was Vesalius’s book called and when was it published?
‘The fabric of the human body’
1543
What was Pare’s book called and when was it published?
‘Works on surgery’
1575
What ideas about surgery was there before pare?
Surgeons thought speed was best when dealing with operations
Hot oil and iron was used on battlefields to seal wounds quickly
They believed hot oil would kill ‘poisons’ that they thought were in gunshot wounds.
What new methods did Pare discover?
Instead of sealing wounds with hot oil, he made an ointment of milk, egg yolks, roses and turpentine. Men healed better and less painful
Instead of using hot iron to stop bleeding, he used ligatures (silk thread) to seal arteries- less pain. However could carry infection and was slow.
What factors helped Pare to make his discoveries?
Printing- allowed book to be widely read
Chance- running out of oil
War- gives a chance to practice on people
Own intelligence
What are the 4 humours?
A theory developed by Greek and Roman doctors and continued to dominate medicine in the Middle Ages
It was believed that the body contained 4 important liquids called humours.
If the humours were balanced then the person was healthy. If a person was ill then their humours were out of balance
Treatment was based around balancing the humours
Blood, Black bile, Yellow bile, Phlegm
What was Harvey’s specialism?
The circulation of blood
What was Harvey’s book called and when was it published?
An anatomical account of the motion of the heart and blood in animals
1628
What did people think and believe before Harvey’s discoveries?
Some of Galens ideas were still believed
Eg thought blood was made in the liver and that it was burned up. The heart was just seen as something blood passed through.
The mechanical water pump was being invented and used for the first time.
What did Harvey do and find out?
He dissected cold blooded living animals whose heart was still beating so he could see the movement of each muscle in the heart.
Dissected human hearts
Found out : The heart is a pump Blood is reused Knew differences between arteries and veins Blood only flows one way.
What factors helped Harvey to find his discoveries?
Water pump- may have given him the idea that the heart is a pump
Previous knowledge- had the work of other great doctors to build up his theory eg Vesalius
Individual skills- dedicated
When was the first heart transplant?
1967
When did Pasteur come up with the germ theory?
1861
What was miasma?
The theory that bad air causes infection
Who proved specific bacteria causes specific disease?
Kock
He was a German doctor
How did Pasteur kill bacteria in wine?
By boiling it
Who invented the microscope?
Leeuwenhoek
When was the microscope invented?
1600s
What was pasteurs job?
A chemist
What was the name of pasteurs theory?
The germ theory
What was spontaneous generation?
The theory that microbes, flies and maggots are made by decaying matter.
When did Koch discover tuberculosis bacteria?
1882
How did Koch discover that specific bacteria caused specific disease?
He took some organs from sheep who had died of Anthrax. In these organs he found bacteria. He injected 20 generations of mice with the anthrax bacteria and each one developed anthrax
How does Koch link to Pasteur?
Pasteur uses Koch’s idea that specific bacteria causes specific disease, to come up with vaccinations.
How did Pasteur come up with the first ever vaccine?
Over the holiday a solution a chicken cholera was left out. This weakened the disease. One of pasteurs team injected a chicken with the weakened disease. It did not die. It was then given a full strength chicken cholera disease and it didn’t die
The exposure to the air weakened the germs.
What vaccines did pasture make?
Chicken cholera
Anthrax
Rabies
Who found X-rays?
Röntgen
How did Röntgen find X-rays?
He was experimenting with cathode Rays
When did Röntgen discover X-rays?
1895
What did Marie Curie do with X-rays?
She realised the importance of X-rays during ww2. She developed portable X-ray machines which were taken to the battlefield. They were know as ‘Petites Curies’. They allowed surgeon to improve their success rate in removing deeply lodged bullets, which would have otherwise caused infection.
What are 4 types of scanning techniques?
Ultrasound.
MRI.
PET.
CT.
Describe a CT scan
A machine sends several X-rays through the body at the same time from different angles which builds a 2d image. It is more detailed than a normal X-ray.
CT scans are used to pinpoint tumours and to direct radiotherapy to certain body areas.
What was used to discover DNA?
X-rays
Who first discovers DNA?
Rosalind Frankin
Who discover the structure of DNA?
Watson and Crick
What do Watson and Crick prove?
That DNA is passed onto the next generation
What does the discovery that DNA lead to?
The Human Genome Project
What is the Human Genome Project?
The mapping of the whole human DNA - completed in 2006
Essay question: How successful has the development of medical knowledge been in improving health from the middle ages to present day?
MIDDLE AGES
- success- alchemy
- failure- zodiac man
- pace- slow- based on galens ideas
RENAISSANCE
- success- Vesalius, Pare, Harvey
- failure- ligatures, can not do transplants
- pace- slow- still no knowledge of germs
19TH CENTURY
- success- Pasteur- vaccinations
- failure- unsure how vaccinations work
- pace-significant pace due to Germ Theory
2OTH CENTURY
- success- Rontgen discovers Xrays. - discovery of DNA Watson+Crick
- failure- can not treat all diseases
- pace- fastest development
How were herbal remedies used in the Middle ages?
- Doctors used herbs to heal people
- Alchemy
- medical historians believe they were effective
Who were barber surgeons and what did they do?
- Cut hair and performed operations
- Blood letting,trephining
- Cheaper than doctors
What was purging, how was it meant to work?
- making people sick to purify the body and balance humours
- Enema up the rectum- would pump out stomach
- purge given to make people sick
Why and how were leeches used in the Middle Ages?
-used to bleed people to balance humours
What is an inoculation?
When a patient gets a small dose of the disease, which will hopefully prevent them getting the full disease.
- would sometimes develop into full disease and kill patient
- expensive
Describe the work of Edward Jenner
- Doctor who discovered that people who had cowpox were less likely to develop smallpox
- Jenner gave a healthy boy (James Phipps) cowpox and then small pox. The boy survived. Jenner repeated 23 times on other people and they all survived.
What shows that Jenner’s discovery of vaccination using cow pox was significant?
1805- Napoleon had all his soldiers vaccinated
1852- British government made vaccination compulsory
Why was there opposition to vaccinations (cow pox)
Concerns that giving people cow pox was turning people into cows
inoculates no longer earning so much as people re getting vaccinations instead
What were the 3 factors that made surgery so dangerous in the early 1800s?
- pain
- infection
- blood loss
Who and when discovered laughing gas? What was the problem with it?
Humphrey Davy, 1799
reduces sensation of pain but DOES NOT MAKE THE PATIENT COMPLETELY UNCONSCIOUS
Who and when was the first British surgeon to use ether? What was the problem with it?
Robert Liston, 1847
caused IRRITATION WITH LUNGS AND EYES and was very FLAMMABLE
When and who discovered chloroform? How did he discover it?
1847, James Simpson
poured chloroform into glasses, inhaled vapours and fell into a deep sleep. He starts using chloroform on woman giving birth
Why did some people oppose anaesthetics?
- unnatural
- no one knew the longterm effects
What were the general problems with anaesthetics?
- Did not necessarily make surgery safer
- Surgeons would carry out longer, more complex operations, increasing the risk of infection and amount of blood lost.
- 1848 HANNAH GREENER died whilst being given chloroform- INGROWN TOENAIL
Who encouraged the use of chloroform?
Queen Victoria.
used it when she gave birth in 1857
Who developed a respirator to apply chloroform and why was this significant?
John Snow
Safer as it controlled the dosage patients got of chloroform.
What did Semmelweis make doctors do and why did no believe him?
1840s- Wash their hands before delivering babies.
as this was before the germ theory (no one knew about germs)
Who came up with the first antiseptic in surgery? When and what was it?
1865- Lister- carbolic spray
Reduced deaths from about 50% to 15% by 1870
Why was there opposition to Lister’s idea of using carbolic spray in surgery?
- Acid cracked surgeons skin
- Smelt
- Lister was seen as arrogant
- Results were not the same as not every surgeon was as precise as Lister
What 2 things followed after Lister’s discovery of carbolic spray?
Rubber gloves, Aseptic surgery
Who discovers blood groups and when? Why is this significant?
1901- Landsteiner
in WW1 this improves surgery. They found a way to separate and store blood.
What is the word for something to remove pain?
Anaesthetic
What is the word for something to reduce the risk of infection?
Antiseptic
What is penicillin?
a mould called penicillin
Who first discovers penicillin and when?
John Sanderson - early 19th century
What was Lister’s role in the discovery of penicillin?
1880s- rediscovers Sanderson’s work and successfully uses penicillin to treat a nurse with an infected wound.
He did not leave any notes on his method
Who and when rediscovered the properties of penicillin after Lister?
Alexander Fleming -1929
How did Fleming make his discovery?
He found penicillin had got into a petri dish of bacteria and had killed the surrounding bacteria.
He observed his results and recognised their significance- that penicillin could be injected into humans to kill bacteria.
Why did Flemings discovery of penicillin not lead to immediate developments in medicine?
Fleming did not have the facilities or support to develop his ideas.
How did Flory and Chain further develop penicillin?
They gathered together a skilled research team to research into penicillin.
Tested penicillin on a patient who got better but later died. This confirmed it was safe as they were convinced that if they had had enough penicillin, the patient would have survived.
1942- American government gave $80 million to drug companies to mass produce penicillin
How did penicillin become mass produced to treat casualties in WW2?
Eventually drug companies found a way to mass produce penicillin.
The growing casualties of WW2 added to the urgency to mass produce penicillin
Penicillin halved the average time soldiers spent in hospital
What were the four elements?
Medieval alchemists believed that all matter was composed of four elements
air, fire, earth and water
Describe how the four humours linked to the four seasons and four elements
Blood- spring caused blood to increase, Air was hot and moist
Yellow bile- summer, bile would increase, Fire was hot and dry
Black bile- autumn, black bile would increase, Earth, cold and dry
Phlegm- winter- phlegm increases, Water, cold and moist
Had medical knowledge advanced by the end of the Middle Ages?
was little advancement
doctors continued to believe in the four humours
