Topic 3: Cognitive Aspects Flashcards
What is cognition?
Thinking, remembering, learning, decision-making, reading, seeing, …
What are the two different categories of cognition?
Experimental (intuitively/effortlessly) vs. reflective (involves mental effort) cognition (Norman, 1993)
Fast vs. slow thinking (Kahneman, 2011)
How can understand cognition help?
Provides knowledge about what users can and cannot be expected to do
+ provides theories, modeling tools or guidance on how to design better interactive products
What are the cognitive processes? (hint: 6 processes)
- Attention
- Perception
- Memory
- Learning
- Reading, speaking, and listening
- Problem-solving, planning, reasoning and decision making
Is learning or problem-solving independent from other cognitive processes?
No - E.g. learning process also needs attention, perception, memory + reading, speaking or listening
What is attention?
Selecting things on which to concentrate –> lets us focus on information that is relevant
–> focused and divided attention
What are design recommendations to enable better attention processes?
Make information salient when it needs to be paid attention to
Use techniques for this: color ordering, spacing, flashing lights (Lecture example: Hotel/Motel Overview –> spacing S. 2+3)
Avoid cluttering interfaces with too much information
For what and why is spacing useful?
For what: To enable a better attention process
Why: - information is grouped into categories
Is it possible to perform multiple tasks without one or more being affected?
Multitasking can cause people to lose their train of thought, make errors, and need to start over
How prone are heavy or light multitaskers to distraction?
Heavy multitaskers are more prone to being distracted, are easily distracted + find it difficult to filter irrelevant information (if distracting info is useful to task it can support the performance)
Is it okay to use your phone while driving?
No - driving needs a lot of attention & drivers are prone to being distracted (longer reaction times) + drivers using their phone rely more on expectations, not on what is actually happening
Are hands-free phones safer?
No - same cognitive processing happens + remote person is not aware of current situation and can distract the driver
What is perception?
the way how information is acquired from the environment via five senses and transformed into experiences
What are the five senses?
Vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch (and kinesthesia)
What are design implications regarding perception?
- Icons should enable readily distinguishing
- border & spacing are effective ways of grouping info
- sounds should be audible and distinguishable
- interfaces should use proper color contrast (S.6)
- haptic feedback should be used judiciously
–> Things should be READILY perceivable (Text size, easy distinguishable)
Lecture example: took people less time to locate items for information that was grouped (S.4+5)
What is memory?
- Recalling various kinds of knowledge
- involves filtering and processing what is attended (don’t remember everything)
- includes process of fist encoding and then retrieving knowledge
- for recalling (remembering) the context is important
- humans recognize things better than being able to recall
- immediate memory capacity is limited to 7+-2 chunks
How is the memory working?
Memories are reconstructed.
- memory models
- association, vivid images, and coding activities (paper SMR & RPT)
Are subject to hindsight errors (Rückschaufehler)
- See events that already occurred as being more predictable
Explain the memory model by Atkinson & Shiffrin
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) - Slide 7
1.) external input goes through sensory registration (5 senses) + part of external input is lost
2.) registered input gets into short-term storage (STS) + part is lost
3.) long-term storage (LTS)) + part is decades and loss of strength in LTS occurs
1.) –> 3.) is also possible, but often input goes through STS
Explain the memory model by Baddeley & Hitch
Baddeley & Hitch (1974) - Slide 8
Describes working memory (short-term memory)
consists of 3 main components:
- Central Executive (supervisory system): controls the flow of info (control and regulation of cognitive processes incl. focus direction)
- Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad (slave system): stores visuo-spatial data
- Phonological Loop (slave system): stores verbal content
(Slide 8)
later: in 2000, the episodic buffer was added to the model
- episodic buffer (slave system): links information across domains to form integrated units incl. time sequencing
(Slide 9)
Explain the processing in memorizing
First encoding
the more attention is paid & processed –> more likely to be remembered
Recognition vs. recall - implications for interface design
command-based interface: requires user to recall from memory
graphical interface: users need only to browse/scan until they recognize item they look for (7+-2 not applicable as nothing has to be remembered) (S.10)
Digital memory aids
Reduce memory load: password manager
digital forgetting - e.g. when braking up
SenseCam - takes constantly photos of surrounding –> improves memory from people with dementia
Design implication for the memory
- reduce cognitive load (avoid long & complicated producers)
- recognition rather than recall for interfaces
- provide various ways for digital labeling information for easier identification (folders, categories, flags…)
What is learning?
Accumulation of skills and knowledge involving the memory
Types of learning
Incidental learning (occurs without any intention to learn - recognizing Mr. Yi´s face)
Intentional learning (goal-directed with to goal of being able to remember sth - studying for HCi ;) )
(Intentional learning is harder)
Design implications - learning
- interfaces that encourage exploration
- interfaces that guide learning
- link concepts and representation (facilitate learning of complex material)
Design implications - reading, speaking & listening
- speech-based menus or instructions should be short
- accentuate the intonation of artificial generated speech
- display large text on a screen (or give possibility to)
(listening requires less cognitive effort than reading or speaking)
What is problem-solving, planning, reasoning, or decision making?
- involves reflective cognition (incl. often conscious processes, discussions)
- may involve working out different scenarios & weighing up alternatives
Design implications - problem-solving, planning, reasoning, or decision making
- provide information and help pages (easy to access)
- use simple and memorable functions to support rapid decision-making and planning
Dilemma - decision making
as a result of the app mentality people find it difficult to make their own decisions:
- rely on a multitude of apps
- need to look up, get others opinions
What are cognitive frameworks and for what are they used?
Most known mental models:
- mental models
- gulfs of execution and evaluation
- distributed cognition
- external and embodied cognition
Why?
- used to explain and predict user behavior (based on theories, focusses on mental processes that take place)
What is a mental model?
–> users develop an understanding of a system
-knowledge structure is described as a mental model (Example S.11-13)
- mental model develops more as users learn more about a product
- Internal construction of some aspects of the external world enabling predictions and inferences to be made
Different types: deep vs. shallow (use wifi connection vs. how it works)
What is an erroneous mental model?
A wrong mental model (lecture example: thermostat - to highest number to heat faster, press elevator button twice for fast performance)
humans mental model of interactive devices is often:
- poor, often incomplete, easily confusable, based on inappropriate analogies and superstition
Design implications - mental model
- clear & easy to use instructions
- appropriate guidance
- provide help
- transparency (intuitive interface)
- make obvious what actions interface supports (swiping, clicking, selecting)
Explain the gulfs of execution and evaluation
explicates gap between user and interface (system) - Slide 14
- gulf of execution: distance from user to physical system (How do I use this system?)
- gulf of evaluation: distance from physical system to user
(What is the current system state?)
Goal: bridging gulf to lower the cognitive effort
can be used a an indicator whether interface increases or decreases cognition load
Stages of information processing
Input/Stimuli
Stage 1: Encoding
Stage 2: Comparison
Stage 3: Response selection
Stage 4: Response execution
Output/response
(S.15)
limited to mental activities that happen in head + not adequate for HCI
Explain external cognition/representation and why they are used
Concerned with explaining how we interact with or create information by using a variety of external representations (books, webpages, diagrams, maps, notes,…)
Used to reduce memory load (e.g. diaries, reminders)
–> design implication
Explain the processes included in external cognition
Externalization: transforming knowledge into external representations to reduce memory load (diaries, personal reminders,…)
Computational offloading: use a tool or device in conjunction with an external representation to help carry out a computation (using pen & paper to solve a math problem)
Annotation: involves modifying existing representations through making marks
Cognitive tracing: involves externally manipulating items into different order or structures (actually modifying/changing items)
Explain distributed cognition
Is about the nature of cognitive phenomena while interacting across individuals, artifacts, & internal and external representation. Focuses on how information is propagated through different media (how information is represented and re-represented as it moves across individuals and through the array of artifacts that are used during activities)
Lecture example: Air traffic control (S.16)
What is an embodied interaction?
The practical engagement with the social and physical environment involving creating, manipulating, …
