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topic 3 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what type of ratio do smaller organisms have?

A

a large surface area to volume ratio

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2
Q

what is lost as the surface area to volume ratio increases?

A

more heat is lost so organisms need a higher metabolic rate

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3
Q

what are the adaptations to maximise gas exchange?

A 
large surface area to volume ratio 
thin means a short diffusion distance 
selectively permeable 
movement of environmental medium 
transport system to move medium
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4
Q

what is Fick’s law?

A

diffusion is proportional to (surface area x conc difference)/length of diffusion path

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5
Q

how does gas exchange occur in single celled organisms?

A

diffusion across the body surface

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6
Q

what is the purpose of an exoskeleton?

A

fibrous for protection, lipids prevent water loss

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7
Q

what is the tracheal system in insects made of?

A

trachea, tracheoles, spiracles

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8
Q

what are the adaptations of an insect to limit water loss?

A

small surface area to volume ratio where water evaporates from
waterproof exoskeleton
spiracles can open/close to prevent water loss

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9
Q

what happens in the spiracles?

A

gases can enter and leave

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10
Q

what happens in the trachea?

A

rings strengthen and keep the trachea open

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11
Q

what happens in the tracheoles?

A

extend to tissues to deliver oxygen

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12
Q

how does gas exchange occur in insects?

A

mass transport uses rhythmic and abdominal movements

conc gradient from tracheoles to atmosphere allows diffusion to occur

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13
Q

how does anaerobic respiration occur in insects?

A

lactase lowers the water potential of cells
water moves in by osmosis from tracheoles
decreases volume of tracheoles
air is drawn in

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14
Q

what is the epidermis purpose?

A

limits water loss and controls gas exchange

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15
Q

what is the purpose of the palisade mesophyll?

A

chloroplasts for photosynthesis

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16
Q

what is the purpose of the spongy mesophyll?

A

where gas diffusion occurs

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17
Q

what is the purpose of guard cells?

A

to control what enters and leaves the plant

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18
Q

what is the purpose of the stomata?

A

to close at night to prevent water loss

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19
Q

what is the human gas exchange system composed of?

A

lungs, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

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20
Q

what happens during inspiration to move air into the lungs?

A 
external intercostals contract 
ribs move up and out 
internal intercostals relax 
diaphragm contracts 
air pressure decreases 
lung volume increases
air moves into the lungs down a pressure gradient
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21
Q

what are the adaptations of the alveoli?

A 
epithelium is one cell thick
large surface area: volume 
permeable 
rich blood supply
elastic tissue 
surfactant to reduce surface tension
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22
Q

how does oxygen leave the alveoli?

A

oxygen diffuses from the alveoli down a concentration gradient, across the alveolar epithelium, across the capillary endothelium, into the blood

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23
Q

how does carbon dioxide enter the alveoli?

A

carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillary, down a concentration gradient, across the capillary endothelium, across the alveolar epithelium, into the alveoli

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24
Q

what is tidal volume?

A

volume of air entering and leaving the lungs in a resting breath

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25
Q

what is vital capacity?

A

maximum volume of air we can inhale and exhale

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26
Q

what is residual volume?

A

volume of air left in lungs after strongest exhalation

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27
Q

what is the total lung capacity equation?

A

vital capacity + residual capacity

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28
Q

what is pulmonary ventilation?

A

the volume of air moving in and out of the lungs per minute

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29
Q

what is the equation for pulmonary ventilation?

A

tidal volume x respiration rate

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30
Q

what is haemoglobin?

A

protein with a quaternary structure

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31
Q

what is the role of haemoglobin?

A

to transport oxygen

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32
Q

what is affinity for oxygen?

A

the ability to bind to oxygen

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33
Q

what is saturation with oxygen?

A

the amount of oxygen in a red blood cell

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34
Q

what is loading/association?

A

binding of oxygen to haemoglobin, in areas of high partial pressure

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35
Q

what is unloading/dissociation?

A

oxygen detaches from haemoglobin, in areas of low partial pressure

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36
Q

why is a haemoglobin graph S shaped?

A

changes shape when the first haemoglobin binds- easier for others to bind but becomes harder upon saturation

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37
Q

why would a haemoglobin graph shift to the left?

A

to have a higher affinity for oxygen

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38
Q

why would a haemoglobin graph shift to the right?

A

to have a lower affinity for oxygen

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39
Q

when would a haemoglobin graph shift to the left?

A

for a foetus, myoglobin, areas of high altitude

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40
Q

when would a haemoglobin graph shift to the right?

A

fast metabolism, Bohr effect (high CO2=acidic)

41
Q

why is the circulatory system described as closed?

A

blood stays within the vessels

42
Q

why is the circulatory system described as double?

A

blood passes through the heart twice

43
Q

why is blood flow slow through the lungs?

A

low pressure, prevents capillary damage and allows more time for gas exchange

44
Q

what pressure is blood under to reach the rest of the body?

A

high pressure

45
Q

what happens in diastole?

A

atria and ventricles relax, blood enters the atria via the vena cava and pulmonary vein, which increases the pressure in the atria

46
Q

what happens in atrial systole?

A

atria contract which increases the pressure
atrioventricular valves open
blood flows into the ventricles
ventricles relax

47
Q

what happens in ventricular systole?

A 
ventricles contract 
pressure higher than normal in the atria 
atrioventricular valves close 
semi lunar valves open 
blood pushed into the pulmonary artery
48
Q

what is the equation for cardiac output?

A

heart rate x stroke volume

49
Q

what is the job of an artery?

A

to carry blood away from the heart

50
Q

what is the structure of an artery?

A

thick muscle layer to control blood volume passing through
thick elastic layer to maintain blood pressure
thick walls to prevent bursting due to high pressure
no valves

51
Q

what is the structure of an arteriole?

A

smaller than arteries
thinner due to low pressure
less elastic tissue due to low pressure

52
Q

what is the function of a capillary?

A

exchange surface

53
Q

what is the structure of a capillary?

A

thin for diffusion
highly branched for large surface area
narrow diameter slows blood flow and short diffusion pathway
narrow lumen to reduce diffusion distance
spaces between cells allow white blood cells to escape and deal with infections
no muscle or elastic tissue

54
Q

what is the function of a vein?

A

to carry blood back into the heart

55
Q

what is the structure of a vein?

A

thin muscle layer to carry blood away from tissues
thin elastic layer due to lower pressure
thin wall as less risk of bursting/easily flattened
contain valves

56
Q

what is tissue fluid?

A

fluid containing water, glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, ions and oxygen , that surrounds tissues

57
Q

how is tissue fluid formed?

A

1) high hydrostatic pressure at the arteriole end of the capillary
2) fluid passes out but large molecules remain
3) which lowers the water potential
4) water moves back in to the venous end of the capillary by osmosis
5) lymph system collects excess tissue fluid which is returned to the blood

58
Q

what is transpiration?

A

loss of water vapour from the stomata by evaporation

59
Q

how does light intensity affect transpiration?

A

the more light, a faster rate, more stomata open, larger surface area for evaporation

60
Q

how does temperature affect transpiration?

A

higher temperature, faster rate, more kinetic energy, faster movement so more evaporation

61
Q

how does humidity affect transpiration?

A

more water vapour in air decreases water potential gradient, water less likely to evaporate out

62
Q

how does wind affect transpiration?

A

faster rate, wind moves water vapour to reduce water potential gradient

63
Q

where is cohesion tension theory for?

A

the xylem

64
Q

how does water travel as a column?

A

polar, H bonds between different water molecules, cohesion

65
Q

what is adhesion?

A

when water molecules stick to other molecules

66
Q

how does root pressure force water upwards?

A

water moves into the roots, which increases the volume of liquid, so the root pressure increases which forces water upwards

67
Q

what are the stages of cohesion tension theory?

A

1) water evaporates out of the cells due to the sun’s energy
2) which lowers the water potential of leaf cells
3) water moves down the water potential gradient by osmosis
4) lower pressure at the top of the xylem
5) water pulled up the xylem vessels down a pressure gradient
6) cohesive forces mean water travels as a continuous column
7) water molecules adhere to xylem walls

68
Q

what is translocation?

A

the movement of sucrose around a plant

69
Q

what are sieve tube elements?

A

living cells with no nucleus and few organelles

70
Q

what are companion cells?

A

cells that provide ATP for active transport

71
Q

what is the source?

A

where plants produce food using photosynthesis

72
Q

what is the sink?

A

where plants store food produced by photosynthesis

73
Q

where is the mass flow hypothesis based?

A

in the phloem

74
Q

what are the stages of mass flow hypothesis?

A

1) sucrose made in photosynthesis and moves by diffusion into companion cells
2) hydrogen ions are actively transported out of companion cells into the sieve tube elements
3) sucrose is co transported with hydrogen
4) sucrose in the sieve tube elements lowers the water potential
5) water leaves the xylem and enters the phloem down the water potential gradient
6) this increases the hydrostatic pressure so substances move down a pressure gradient
7) sucrose is used/stored at the sink
8) sucrose is actively transported from the sieve tubes to cells down the water potential gradient
9) water moves into cells which reduces the hydrostatic pressure resulting in a pressure gradient down the phloem

75
Q

what is digestion?

A

when large insoluble molecules are hydrolysed into smaller molecules, which can be absorbed across cell membranes

76
Q

where is amylase produced?

A

in the salivary glands and pancreas

77
Q

what does amylase do?

A

hydrolyses glyosidic bonds

78
Q

what hydrolyses sucrose?

A

sucrase

79
Q

what hydrolyses lactose?

A

lactase

80
Q

how is starch digested?

A

1) saliva enters the mouth from the salivary glands
2) hydrolyses starch in food to maltose
3) denatured in the stomach
4) enters the stomach- pancreatic juice hydrolyses starch to maltose
5) ileum produces maltase- hydrolyses starch to alpha glucose

81
Q

how are sodium ions transported into the blood?

A

by active transport out of epithelial cells

82
Q

how does sodium and glucose co transport work?

A

1) sodium ions actively transported out of epithelial cells into the blood
2) which reduces the sodium concentration in epithelial cells
3) sodium ions diffuse from the lumen down a concentration gradient into the epithelial cell
4) glucose attaches to the co transporter and is transported into the epithelial cell against its concentration gradient
5) glucose moves by facilitated diffusion from the epithelial cell into the blood

83
Q

what does an endopeptidase do?

A

hydrolyses peptide bonds between amino acids in the middle of a polymer chain

84
Q

what does an exopeptidase do?

A

hydrolyses peptide bonds between amino acids at the end of a polymer chain

85
Q

what does a dipeptidase do?

A

hydrolyses peptide bonds between 2 amino acids

86
Q

where does protein digestion start and end?

A

starts in the stomach, completed in the ileum

87
Q

what enzyme digests lipids?

A

lipase

88
Q

where is lipase produced?

A

in the pancreas

89
Q

what does lipase do?

A

hydrolyses the ester bond to form monoglycerides and fatty acids

90
Q

where are bile salts produced?

A

in the liver

91
Q

what do bile salts do?

A

emulsify lipids into droplets, which increases the surface area for lipase to act on

92
Q

what is physical lipid digestion?

A

emulsification and micelle formation

93
Q

what is chemical lipid digestion?

A

lipase hydrolyses lipids into glycerol and fatty acids

94
Q

how are lipids digested?

A

1) micelles meet epithelial cells
2) fatty acids and monoglycerides are non polar
3) these diffuse across the membrane
4) and are modified to form triglycerides in the ER and golgi
5) form chylomicrons
6) leave by exocytosis

95
Q

what is cell specialisation?

A

adaptations of a cell to perform a certain function

96
Q

what is a tissue?

A

when a group of cells work together to form a certain function

97
Q

what is an organ?

A

a group of tissues working together to form a certain function

98
Q

what is an organ system?

A

group of organs working together

biology updated (10 decks)

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