Topic 2 - Theories of Religion

Question 1

What are the 3 ways that sociologists define religion

Answer 1

1. Substantive definitions
2. Functional definitions
3. Social constructionist definitions

Question 2

Substantive deifinitions

Answer 2

• Exclusive definitions of religion
• They draw a clear line between religious and non-religious beliefs
• A belief in God or the supernatural
• WEBER defines religion as belief in a superior or supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically
• For example, Abrahamic religions who believe in the oneness of God

Question 3

A03 Substantive definitions

Answer 3

• They are accused of western bias because they exclude eastern belief systems like Buddhism
• Defining religion in this way leaves no room for beliefs and practices that perform similar functions to religion but do not include a belief in God

Question 4

Functional definitions

Answer 4

• Functionalists do not focus on religion in terms on belief, but instead the purpose that religion serves for society, or the psychological functions its performs for individuals
• For example, DURKHEIM defines religion in terms of its contributions to social intergration
• YINGER argues that religion helps us to answer ultimate questions such as what happens after we die

Question 5

A03 Functional definitions

Answer 5

• Just because a social organisation helps to integrate people this does not make it a religion

Question 6

Social constructionist definitions

Answer 6

• Take an interpretivist approach and focuses more on the meanings that people actually give to religions, and why they consider it to be a religion in the first place

Question 7

A03 Social constructionist definitions

Answer 7

• Inclusive in the fact that they do not require a belief but this is subjective as everyone can have different beliefs about religion so it becomes impossible to define what exactly a religion is = pluralism
• ALDRIDGE argues for its followers scientology is a religion but many governemnts have denied it a legal status

Question 8

Exclusive definitions

Answer 8

• Go against the concept of postmodernity and choice
• Non-intergrating
• Attempt to maintin status quo by having a singular view of what religion is

Question 9

Inclusive definitions

Answer 9

• More accommodating of non-metaphorical belief systems
• Examine the meanings that people attach to religious based practices
• Challenge the status quo

Question 10

Functionalist theories of religion

Answer 10

• Functionalists view society as an organism, with interdependant parts and functions
• Societies most basic need is social order and solidarity

Question 11

The sacred and the profane

Answer 11

• DURKHEIM
  1) The sacred: The unique ability of religion to instill in its believers a set of values which inspire emotions such as fear or wonder - performed by social groups and unite society
  2) The profane: Ordinary or everyday things which hold no significance and do not unite social groups in a collective organism
• DURKHEIM believed that when we consider worshipping the sacred, we are worshipping society as it unites everyone through collective practices and rituals
• Totemism (DURKHEIM) felt to properly understand religion you must study the simplest if societies and found clans came together to worship a sacred totem

Question 12

The collective consciousness

Answer 12

• DURKHEIM: We are bound in a collective way of living, and our sense of individuality changes. We become more than people, but a group with a singular purpose
• Without this collective conscience the concept of society would disintergrate.

Question 13

Cognitive functions

Answer 13

• DURKHEIM and MAUSS state religion provides us with categories (able to reason and think), e.g., the concept of time, space and could not exist without religion
• DURKHEIM belives that religion is the origin of human thought, reason, and science

Question 14

A03 - Criticising DURKHEIM

Answer 14

• Not every religion has the same sacred totems, different religions have different signs they worship = challenges collective conscience
• May apply to small societies but is harder to apply to large scale societies where theyre are many religions with conflict with each other
• Postmodern sociologist (MESTROVIC) argues that there is increased diversity in society and no longer a simple shared value system for religion to reinforce

Question 15

Psychological functions

Answer 15

• MALINOWSKI = religion promotes social solidarity, but does this by providng a psychological function and helps people when the outcome of everyday life is important but uncontrollable
  There are 2 psychological functions proposed by MALINOWSKI:
  1) The Trobriand Islands
  2) When Life is in Crisis

Question 16

The Trobriand Islands

Answer 16

• MALINOWSKI
• Here, fishing takes place either in a lagoon, or in the ocean
• In the lagoon, fishing is predictable as poison is used, so the islanders do not turn to spirituality
• In the ocean, fishing is uncertain as it is open, so “canoe magic” is used
• This helps the islanders gain confidence psychologically, but also unites them as a society

Question 17

When Life is in Crisis

Answer 17

• MALINOWSKI
• When life is uncertain or testing, e.g., birth/death/marriage, turning to religion provides individuals with a level of comfort that unites them
• Death = main reason for the existance of religious belief

Question 18

PARSONS - Values and meanings

Answer 18

1) Creates and legitimises society’s central values: makes them sacred, e.g., protestantism is the core to American values
2) Primary source of meaning: answers “ultimate” questions such and why do the good suffer and why do some die young
- Both of these functions help maintain socail stability and prevent anomie

Question 19

Civil religion

Answer 19

• BELLAH
• What happens when there is more than one belief system within a society?
• Civil religion = e.g., in America, there is the concept of “One nation under God”, this is the same belief for Jewish people, Muslims, Christians, and Athiests

Question 20

A03 Criticising functionalism

Answer 20

• Emphasise the positive function religion serves but ignores the negative effects, e.g, religion being a souce of oppression for the poor and women
• Ignores religion as a source of conflict e.g., Northern Island = hard to see how religion can unite and promote intergration
• Civil religion does overcome this to some degree by explaining how some societies have overarching beliefs shared by all, is this really religion?

Question 21

Marxist theories of religion

Answer 21

• Opposite of functionalists, everyone is working towareds a similar goal, or that we are all apart of a collective consciousness
• Society based on class conflict between the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat
• Conflict would only end when the Proletariat rise up against the Bourgeoisie

Question 22

Religion as ideology

Answer 22

• LENIN = religion is an apparatus used by the Bourgeoisie to legetimise their control over the Proletariat
• Religion misleads the Proletariat into believing that their suffering in this life is valuable, and will lead them to a better life afterwards
• LENIN = religion as a “spiritual gin”: doled out to the masses by the ruling class to confuse them and keep them in their place = “mystical fog” that obscures reality
• Creates a false consciousness

Question 23

The drug of the oppressed

Answer 23

• “Religion is the opium of the people. It is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, the soul of soulless conditions…”
• Religion becomes a mechanism of coping when the Proletariat are exploited on a daily basis = alienation
• Salvation = religion = this worldly existance
• Results in an ideological state apparatus (ALTHUSSER)

Question 24

A03 Marxism

Answer 24

• Ignore the positive functions that religion serves such as those of social solidarity (DURKHEIM), and the physiological functions (MALINOWSKI). Neo-marxists see religion as helping not hindering social change
• ALTHUSSER rejects the idea of alienation as we do not have one true self, therefore this is inadequate
• Capitalism and religion have not always gone hand in hand (ABERCROMBIE and TURNER)

Question 25

Feminist theories of religion

Answer 25

• Society is based on conflict between men and women (patriarchy)

Question 26

Evidence of patriarchy in religion: Religious organisations

Answer 26

• Most religions are male dominated, e.g. Catholicism forbid eomrn to become priests
• ARMSTRONG sees womens exclusion as women becoming marginalised

Question 27

Evidence of patriarchy in religion: Places of religion

Answer 27

• Women are often segregated or seated behind men in places of worship, where men occupy more of an important role
• HOLM women are devalued = seen as impure when pregnant

Question 28

Evidence of patriarchy in religion: Sacred texts

Answer 28

• Religious scripture always depicts tales of male Prophets/Gods and usually written by men
• Stories are usually anti-female

Question 29

Evidence of patriarchy in religion: Religious laws and customs

Answer 29

• May give women fewer rights, e.g., access to divurce, decision making, and dress code
• Religious influence on cultural norms can also lead to unequal treatment such as punishment for sexual behaviour, e.g., Catholic church ban abortion

Question 30

A03 Feminism

Answer 30

• ARMSTRONG women in the middle-ages were depicted as Godesses, 4000 years ago exclusive religions submerged = social construct as being subordinated
• WOODHEAD religious feminism cannot be generalised (instead there are religious forms of feminism)
• BRUSCO found belonging to the Pentecostal Church can be empowering by freeing women from the machismo culture men take part in
• RINALDO = piety movement