topic 1 Flashcards
agreement reality
things we know as part and parcel of the culture we share with those around us
epistemology
science of knowing , systems of knowledge
methodology
the science of finding out, procedures for scientific investigation
inquiry
process of asking, getting to know
errors in inquiry
overgeneralisation, inaccurate observation, selective observation, illogical reasoning
the foundation of social science
theory plus data collection plus data analysis
social regularities
probabilistic patters, not always fit the general pattern , verojatnostnije shablony
what is empirical research
systematically answering empirical questions using observations
Systematically: excluding the possibility that other answers are better than the answer we give Observations: about things we can observe by using our senses
Empirical: about things we can observe
on what is empirical research based on
based on observed and measured phenomena and derives from knowledge rather than theory and belief
key characteristics to look for
specific question, definition of population, phenomena, behaviour, description of the process used to study population
the procedure for clear thinking
think, plan, observe, analyse
the procedure for clear thinking but with terms
think> theory
plan> research design
observe> data collection
analyse>data analysis
confirmation bias
cherry picking ,searching for info that confirms our pre existing beliefs, while giving disproportionally less consideration to alternative interpretation
3 types of confirmation bias
Information
reasoning
conclusions (bias in remembering)
Why is confirmation bias so strong?
Limitations in humans, relying on ‘heuristics’
- Wishful thinking
- Consistency (between initial evidence and new evidence)
how to avoid bias
- Systematic data gathering, being aware of what can go wrong
- Explicit and complete reasoning
1. Clarify your pre-existing beliefs (theory)
2. Clarify the procedures you will use to test these beliefs (methods)
3. Stick to these procedures!
where do empirical questions come from
A. Curiosity
B. Science (follow up existing theories and puzzles, if this is true, maybe that is true too)
C. Decision making (try to solve problems) – ‘how to’ questions can be broken up into descriptive and explanatory (causal) research questions.
types of research questions
normative (should be, political, philosofical)
conceptual (what is the meaning, no need of deep research)
empirical
types of empirical questions
- descriptive : number, just stating
-explanatory: causal effect, explaining with cause
4 type of question
Predictive questions – We are not looking for causes, not causal, but also not simply descriptive.
wheel of science
question, theory, research design, observation (data collection), data analysis, answer knowledge
induction and deduction
deduction> start with theory
induction> start with data
decision making
Empirical research questions are often asked in the context of decision making
- Decision-making – You need to change things in someway but lack sufficient knowledge to do so.
the steps of decision making
- Identify, describe and analyze a problem or opportunity – problem definition and
analysis - Develop options/design options – design
- Compare options, using criteria – multi-criteria analysis, ex ante evaluation
- select a preferred alternative on the basis of this evaluation – decision-making rules
- act on the decision/implement the decision – implementation
- monitor and evaluate the consequences – ex post evaluation
clear research
clear units, variables, setting
attributes
characteristics or qualities of people or things, gender: female, male
3 major purposes of social research
exploration, description, explanation
Independent variable
a variable with values that are not problematic in an analysis, but are taken as simply given. An independent variable is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable.
Dependent variable
– a variable assumed to depend on or be caused by another (independent variable).
Idiographic explanation
refers to an approach in research and analysis that focuses on understanding the unique, individual aspects of a particular case, event, or phenomenon.
Nomothetic
which seek to find general laws or patterns that apply to large groups of people or events.
Tolerance for ambiguity
the ability to hold conflicting ideas in your mind simultaneously without denying or dismissing any of them. (Important ability in the world of social research)
Quantification
makes our observations more explicit, make it easier to aggregate, compare and summarize data, opens the possibility of statistical analyses
Qualitative data
non numerical
Quantitative data
numerical data
Both types of data> quantitive, qualitative
useful for different research purposes. Every observation is qualitative at the outset, whether it is our experience of someone’s intelligence
The phrase “qualitative at the outset” typically means that something starts with a qualitative approach or focus. In research or analysis, a qualitative approach involves exploring and understanding phenomena based on descriptions, experiences, or interpretations, rather than quantifiable data or numerical measurements.
Units of analysi(s)
Are described by theoretical variable(s)
- Objects the research question is about (person, city, company, year, day in the week, etc…) - Identifying units: If variable is known, ask “what or who is characterized by this variable?”
Theoretical variable(s)
- They describe Unit(s) of analysis
- Possible characteristics (attributes) of these units (unemployment, income, quality, etc…) - Identifying variables: If unit is known, ask “what characteristics does the unit have?”
Setting (context)
Describes the situation
- Example: place, time, etc.
