ToM Flashcards

1
Q

Theory of mind (ToM)

A

The insight that people hold mental states and that these govern behaviour

Mental states (inferred) – e.g. belief, desire, goals

Allow us to make sense of the social world
– to predict and explain people’s actions
due to their false belief to explain their irrational acting

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2
Q

Desire-based ToM
How are people’s desires changing?

A

People’s desires are idiosyncratic (personal to themselves) and constantly changing (at different age stages of their life)

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3
Q

Desire-based ToM
Do children understand that other people may have desires that differ from theirs?

Research found:
18 month olds understood experimenter’s desired food differed from theirs
but not 14 month olds

What does this suggest?

A

Suggests they understand that desire is:
a subjective mental state
that can differ from person to person at 18 months

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4
Q

What is the defninition of:

Distinction between mind and reality/ world

Person has a representation of the world, the contents of which may be quite different from the contents of the world itself or from our own beliefs

A

Belief-based ToM

Shift from a situation-based
to
representation-based understanding of behaviour

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5
Q

What shift is necessary in Belief-based ToM?

A

Shift from a situation-based
to
representation-based understanding of behaviour

Eg. behaviour based on a representation of reality =
I bring an umbrella because I thought it was going to rain, I was wrong it didn’t rain

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6
Q

How can we tell whether someone has a ToM?

A

False belief task - Standard for testing ToM

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7
Q

When testing ToM which task tests whether child can represent what another person believes in contrast to their own beliefs or reality?

A

False belief task

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8
Q

False belief task:
What are the 3 main pradigms?

A

Unexpected transfer task:
Max chocolate task, the Sally-Ann task

Deceptive box task:
Smarties task (psy books)

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9
Q

Which task:
Explains while Maxi is out playing, his Mum takes the chocolate from the cupboard and grates some of it into a cake. Maxi is returning from play, feeling hungry. He wants his chocolate.

Test Q: Where will Maxi look for his chocolate?
Memory Q: Where did Maxi put his chocolate?
Reality Q: Where did Mum put his chocolate

Children without false belief x : fridge/ random answer
Children with false belief ! : cupboard (right answer)

A

Unexpected transfer task

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10
Q

What were the results of the Unexpected transfer task:
Max chocolate task

A

> 5 yrs
Children 5 and over identified correct place (cupboard)

< 5 yrs
Younger children identified wrong place (fridge)
Reality question: Where did Mum put his chocolate?
showing an ego-centric bias response

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11
Q

Which task:
Involves the Sally-Ann task?

A

Unexpected transfer task

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12
Q

Why is a False belief task more useful than a True belief task?

A

True belief tasks test whether child can represent what another person believes when that belief matches their own beliefs or reality
whereas False belief tasks test true reasoning in a false context, representing their mental state from a false version of reality

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13
Q

Which task:
Involves children being asked
what is inside this tube? (guess)
What is in it? (see)
What will your friend say is inside? (predict)

In addition to a reflection
When you first saw this tube, before we opened it, what did you think was inside the smarties tube?

Findings?

A

Deceptive box task:
Smarties task

3-4yr olds had difficulty acknowledging false belief
- in others
- and own PRIOR false belief once know what is inside

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14
Q

On average with False Belief tasks:
3yr olds…
4yr olds…

A

3-year-old children usually fail FB tasks
4-year-old children usually pass FB tasks

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15
Q

Traditionally taken as evidence that around this time children ‘acquire’ a theory of mind. What does this mean?

A

Radical conceptual shift and stage-like development around 4 years

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16
Q

ToM revealed in natural conversation
What does this mean?

A

They think about mental states before they reach ToM
Mental state terms
Children may use mental state terminal thought to reflect previously false held belief

-May be something about the TASK that is underestimating childrens confidence

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17
Q

ToM in 3 year olds:
A lack of positive evidence doesn’t necessarily mean lack of competence, as there may be performance limitations masking children’s competence:

Name some of the problems that may occur during ToM false belief tasks for 3yr olds

A

Problem with language - focused on word where where is the chocolate
Made Test question more specific – “where will maxi look first of all?”

Story comprehension - checking follow on of the story

Simplifying the task improves performance but not dramatically!

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18
Q

Wellman, Cross & Watson, 2001:
meta-analysis of 178 studies ToM in 3 year olds

Findings?

A

Support for substantial developmental effect/ trend over preschool years:
< 3.5yrs below chance > 4yrs above chance

Can see which modulations helped/ didn’t help

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19
Q

Which task variables make a difference in the ToM
Unexpected transfer task?

A

Improve performance:
Deceptive motive,
Active participation
Salience of mental state

Irrelevant:
Type of task/question,
Nature of protagonist/object

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20
Q

Wellman et al (2001) concluded that:

Although manipulating several variables improved performance,
ie-
Deceptive motive,
Active participation
Salience of mental state
, this was the case across all ages rather than just younger children
– so not selectively unmasking early competence

A

None of the variable manipulations improved performance of 3yrs above chance

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21
Q

Universality: Cross-cultural comparisons:

A

Despite leading very different lives children in industrialized and rural societies
both show a
similar developmental shift between 3 and 5 years

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22
Q

What are the 2 factors contributing to ToM development?

A

1- Role of social experience

2- Biological maturation

23
Q

Which factor describes the aiding understanding of mental states which arises from interactions with other people when contributing to ToM development?

A

Role of social experience

24
Q

Which factor describes children to expressing their understanding of mental states which arises from improvement in executive functioning when contributing to ToM development?

A

Biological maturation

25
Role of experience contributing to ToM: Harris (1999)
Conversations in general are crucial for exposing children to other people’s perspectives Providing children with the vocabulary needed to discuss and reflect on mental states
26
Evidence for the role of experience?
Children with older siblings show earlier ToM Children whose parents talk about mental states more understand false belief earlier than other children Deaf children of hearing parents show a developmental lag on FB (due to only school exposes them to mental states in dign language) In contrast, deaf children of signing parents are comparable with hearing children (as they are exposed to mental state talk via sign language)
27
Theory of Mind as a Scale: Wellman & Liu (2004) What are the 4 sections?
Diverse Desires Diverse Beliefs Knowledge-access False Belief Hidden Emotion
28
Theory of Mind as a Scale: Wellman & Liu (2004) Which section refers to someone can feel one way but display a different emotion?
Hidden emotion their mind and their outward of behaviour
29
Theory of Mind as a Scale: Wellman & Liu (2004) Which section refers to something that can be true, but someone might falsely believe something different?
False belief
30
Theory of Mind as a Scale: Wellman & Liu (2004) Which section refers to something can be true, but someone might not know that?
Knowledge-access Someone is being ignorant about something, even though you know its true
31
Theory of Mind as a Scale: Wellman & Liu (2004) Which section refers to people can have different beliefs about the same situation?
Diverse Beliefs I have a belief that the noise is the cat Neighbour thinks the sound is the squirrel not necessarily right or wrong
32
Theory of Mind as a Scale: Wellman & Liu (2004) Which section refers to people having different desires for the same thing?
Diverse desires might not like the same thing
33
Cross culteral differences in Tom Scales: Children in Western countries show DD>DB>KA>FB>HE
- may be due to values focused on Independent beliefs (Individualistic society) hidden emotions come last
34
Cross cultural differences in Tom Scales: Chinese and Iranian children show: DD>KA>DB>FB>HE
They understood people can hold diverse beliefs later compared to understanding Knowledge-access (Someone is being ignorant about something, even though you know its true) -may be due to less exposure to diverse beliefs, as they hold group value in collectivist cultures
35
The critical role of Executive Functioning may result in childrens ability to pass ToM tasks. What are Executive functions?
A set of domain-general cognitive abilities - help us to control and guide our attention/ behaviour These have to develop in order to pass the ToM tasks
36
What are the 3 main Executive functions?
1- Inhibition 2- Cognitive ability 3- Working memory
37
Which Executive function ignores distracting information or suppressing unwanted responses? eg. strook task/ bear/dragon task/ ignoring text msgs
Inhibition -do not do what dragon says
38
Which Executive function responds to the same thing in different ways depending on the context? eg. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test/ Task-switching paradigm Multiple passwords/ Up vs down in lift
Cognitive flexibility
39
Which Executive function holds important information or your ‘goal’ in mind, Manipulating information in your head? eg. Digit span/ Spatial span/ mental shopping list
Working memory
40
Name 3 roles of Executive Functioning in false belief tasks:
Ignore distracting/salient information – ignore own current belief; disengage from a salient real-world situation to attend to an intangible abstract representation response inhibition - inhibit a prepotent or habitual way of responding (i.e., pointing to the ‘‘true’’ location of the object) working memory -indicate the correct answer while holding in mind two different and conflicting representations
41
Executive functions – Biological constraints Which lobes of the brain are very important for executive functions?
The Frontal Lobes take a long time to develop Important developments in Inhibitory control (IC) take place in 1st 6 years of life, improvement age 3-6
42
Evidence of strong positive correlation between children’s inhibitory control (e.g. on Bear/Dragon task) and FB performance: If you test the same set of children on both tasks, If children do well on 1 they will most likely do well on the other What does this suggest?
Suggests that: development in IC and ToM may be related Inhibition Control - may be a crucial enabling factor for ToM development, affecting both the emerge and express mental state knowledge.
43
Implicit understanding of False belief tasks: Investigated children’s facial expressions as indices of their belief understanding What signs will they show if 3 yr olds perceive the conflict between a person’s belief and reality?
Predicted they will show signs of suspense eg. lip biting and brow furrowing) when observing an actor about to act on basis of their false belief Found greater instances of expressed tension in the false belief cf. true belief condition suggests 3 yr olds expressed knowledge of another’s false belief and recognised the affective consequences of the false belief
44
Which type of knowledge is knowledge easily accessible to the child Measure via elicited response, e.g. verbal answer to a question
Explicit knowledge
45
Implicit understanding of False belief tasks: Investigated children’s facial expressions as indices of their belief understanding In contrast, children’s performance on a classic FB task was poor and unrelated to the amount of expressions they displayed while watching the FB videos What does this suggest?
Suggests expressions are independent from and emerge prior to explicit knowledge of false beliefs.
46
Which type of knowledge is Knowledge the child is unaware of Measure via spontaneous response: Emotional response Anticipatory looking Violation of expectancy
Implicit knowledge
47
Implicit understanding of FB (Clements & Perner, 1994) Aim: to get evidence for a period of implicit understanding of FB that precedes the onset of explicit understanding Method: Tested 44 children aged 2y5m – 4y6m on ‘unexpected transfer task’ What were the 2 implicit and explicit measures?
Implicit measure – anticipatory looking Explicit measure – standard verbal response
48
Which paradigm for implicit measuring in children measures the direction of an infant/child’s first look after an event? Participants’ looking behaviour is analysed to determine if they correctly expect/anticipate what will happen next Requires prediction (cf. with VOE, which relies on reactive looking)
Implicit measure Anticipatory looking paradigm Anticipation prompt: “Sam is waking up. He’s going to get his cheese. I wonder where he’s going to look” <2 sec pause – record child’s eye gaze> = Indirect Measure Test Question: “Which box will he open first?” = Direct Measure Findings: passing pattern of response 86% children over 2y11m showed looking pattern indicative of FB understanding Only 1 child under 2y11m looked at correct place
49
Dissociation of implicit – explicit understanding of belief 3yr olds looked to correct location even though gave incorrect answer! Large gap between implicit and explicit understanding from 2y11m What does this data suggest?
Data suggests that children develop an implicit or unconscious understanding of false belief at an earlier age than they develop an explicit or conscious understanding
50
Are there earlier false belief understanding in infancy? Onishi & Baillargeon Used a totally nonverbal task to test for implicit FB understanding in 15-month-old (pre-verbal) infants Used Violation of expectancy method What is this method?
Familiarise infant to an event Present test behaviour that is either: 1- Consistent or 2- Inconsistent With the prior event If infant looks longer at inconsistent event taken as evidence that they are surprised Indicates some level of knowledge about what should happen
51
Looking time studies with infants: Violation-of-expectancy method Onishi & Baillargeon (2005) – looking time study with 15m olds (watch vid)
Significantly longer looking when expectation violated, so, actor’s action inconsistent with actor’s belief: When actor reaches in wrong box when has true belief Or when reaches in right box, when actually has false belief Longer looking time at the yellow box condition (which challanges false belief) suggests infants expect people to search for objects consistent with their beliefs about the object location, not where the objects are in reality. - Evidence for 15m of reasoning theoretical importance that language and EF do not have a role to play as these infants are pre-verbal
52
Which Model has been proposed to account for this contradiction of children typically pass FB test age 4 but Younger children who are non-verbal FB still have an understanding of FB through implicit non-verbal behaviour?
The Dual Process Model But these tasks may draw on different levels of knowledge (implicit vs. explicit)
53
Dual-route (process) model
Two systems can compute beliefs of others: Fast and efficient system Slow and cognitively demanding system Implicit is only necessary for non-pre verbal infants explicit is then necessary at 4 years when child needs to communicate