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Systems Physiology > Tissues (C & P) > Flashcards

Tissues (C & P) Flashcards

Later on add some cards about muscle contraction from first year slides

1
Q

multi-cellular human body cells do not…

A

… operate independently

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2
Q

what do multi-cellular cells form?

A

They form tight communities that work together and interact with others.

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3
Q

Define tissue

A

an aggregate of cells usually of a particular kind together with their intercellular substance that form one of the structural materials of a plant or animal.

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4
Q

define histology

A

a branch of anatomy that deals with the minute structure of animal and plant tissues as discernible with the microscope.

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5
Q

Individual body cells are…

A

…specialised.

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6
Q

Specialised body cells each perform a …

A

… specific function

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7
Q

Specialised cells have an […] advantage.

A

Specialised cells have an evolutionary advantage.

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8
Q

Specialised cells allows what?

A

Allows sophistication of function and division of labour.

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9
Q

Why do specialsed cells have an evolutionary advantage?

A

Because our bodily functions become more sophisticated as we differentiate our cells.

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10
Q

WHat are the four primary types of tissue?

A
  • Epithelial (covering role)
  • Connective (supportive role)
  • Muscle (movement role)
  • Nervous (control role)
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11
Q

WHat are tissues organised into?

A

Tissues are organised into organs,
which often contain all four tissue
types.

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12
Q

Where do epithelial cells cover?

A

covers cavities from outside and inside

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13
Q

WHat does the arrangement of tissues determine?

A

the organs structure and capabilities.

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14
Q

What are the 5 types of epithelial cell?

A
  • Squamous
  • Cuboidal
  • Columnar
  • Ciliated
  • Glandular
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15
Q

SHape of squamos cell?

A

thin and flat

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16
Q

3 types of muscular cell?

A
  • Unstriated
  • Striated
  • Cardiac
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17
Q

what are the 3 types of connective tissue?

A
  • Proper tissue
  • Skeletal tissue
  • Vascular tissue
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18
Q

Function of epithelial tissue?

A

Secretion / absorption

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19
Q

function of epithelial tissue

A

secretion / absorption

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20
Q

what is the function of connective tissue?

A

support

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21
Q

what is the function of muscle tissue?

A

Movement (Contraction / relaxation)

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22
Q
A
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23
Q

What is embryogenesis?

A

embryonic development

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24
Q

Describe embryogenesis / embryonic development.

A

process by which the embryo forms
and develops (early stages of prenatal development). Embryogenesis starts with the
fertilization of the egg cell (ovum) by a mature motile male sex cell (spermatozoon)

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25
Q

what are the 3 germ layers?

A

1) Endoderm
2) Mesoderm
3) Ectoderm

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26
Q

what is the blue layer?

A

ectoderm

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27
Q

What is the innermost germ layer?

A

endoderm

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28
Q

what is the outermost germ layer?

A

ectoderm

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29
Q

What is the middle germ layer?

A

mesoderm

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30
Q

What organs does the endoderm form?

A

gut, liver, lungs.

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31
Q

what organs does the mesoderm form?

A

skeleton, muscle, kidney, heart, blood.

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32
Q

What organs does the ectoderm form?

A

skin, nervous system.

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33
Q

Epithelial tissue is also known as what?

A

epithelium

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34
Q

What is Epithelial Tissue?

A

Epithelial tissue (or an epithelium) is a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity.

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35
Q

what are the epithelial roles?

A
  • Protection
  • Absorption
  • Sensory reception
  • Secretion
  • Excretion
  • Filtration
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36
Q

Epithelial tissue occurs as either:

A

1) Covering and lining epithelium
2) Glandular eppithelium

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37
Q

What is the covering and lining epithelium?

A
  • Outer layer of skin
  • Lines the cavities of the cardiovascular, digestive, and respiratory system
  • Covers the walls and organs of the ventral body cavity.
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38
Q

What is the function of the glandular epithelium?

A

Forms the glands of the body.

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39
Q

what is meant by interface tissue?

A

Epithelia form boundaries between different environments.

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40
Q

nearly all substances received/given off by the body must…

A

…pass through an epithelium

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41
Q

What are two characteristics of the apical surface?

A
  • Direction (orientation) + polarity
  • Upper free surface exposed to the body exterior or the cavity of an internal organ.
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42
Q

What are some examples of apical surfaces?

A

1) Skin
2) Cornea

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43
Q

What does apical mean?

A

apical means top / outside / external.

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44
Q

What does basal mean?

A

basal means bottom / pointing inside / internal surface

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45
Q

Apical surfaces can be…

A

… smooth or possess microvilli

cornea = smooth
small intestine = villi

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46
Q

what are microvilli?

A

finger like extensions of the plasma membrane.

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47
Q

Cells near apical surface differ in…

A

… structure & function from those near basal surface.

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48
Q

the basal surface is the…

A

…lower attached surface

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49
Q

What is the Basal lamina?

A

non-cellular adhesive sheet consisting of glycoproteins secreted by epithelial cells.

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50
Q

the basal surface contains…

A

…collagen fibres

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51
Q

the basal surface contains collagen fibres that act as a …

A

… selective filter / scaffold along which epithelial cells can migrate.

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52
Q

Whats an example of a basal surface?

A

corneal epithelium

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53
Q

epithelial cells sit…

A

… close together to form continuous sheets.

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54
Q

Adjacent (epithelial) cells are bound together by…

A

… three main types of lateral contacts.

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55
Q

why must epithelial sit close together in the correct positions?

A

large gaps = things can leak through / tissue cannot form its function EG = a cut in the skin. So epithelial cells have to sit close together.

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56
Q

What are tight junctions?

A

interlocking integral membrane proteins that prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space.

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57
Q

examples of tight junctions?

A

skin (physcial barrier/protection
small intestine (absorption)

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58
Q

What are desmosomes?

A

Anchoring junctions and help to form a tension reducing network of fibres

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59
Q

Desmosomes work together with…

A

…tight junctions

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60
Q

What are the function of desmosomes?

A
  • Ensure that proteins remain in the apical region of the plasma membrane
  • Prevent rotation
  • Maintaining the polarity of the epithelial cell
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61
Q

What are gap junctions?

A

communicating junction between cells, where hollow transmembrane proteins (connexons) allow small molecules to pass between cells.

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62
Q

What are connexons?

A

Assembly of six proteins called connexins.

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63
Q

Connexins vary in their…

A

…selectivity

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64
Q

What passes through gap junctions?

A

Different ions, sugars etc. pass through these waterfilled channels

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65
Q

Epithelial sheets are supported by…

A

…connective tissue

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66
Q

All epithelial sheets rest upon…

A

…connective tissue

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67
Q

the reticular lamina likes just beneath the…

A

…basal lamina

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68
Q

what does the reticular lamina consist of?

A

It consists of extra-cellular material containing a fine network of collagen protein fibres

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69
Q

reticular = ?

A

reticular = net-like

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70
Q

Together, the basal lamina and reticular lamina form the…

A

… basement membrane, which reinforces the epithelial sheet.

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71
Q

What do simple epithelia consist of?

A

consist of a single layer of cells, typically found where absorption, secretion and filtration occur.

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72
Q

What does stratified epithelia consist of?

A

consist of two or more cellular layers, stacked on top of one another. Typical in high-abrasion areas, e.g. mouth, skin surface.

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73
Q

Height of epithelial cells?

A

can vary in height

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74
Q

THe three common shapes of epithelial cells?

A

1) Squamous cells
2) Cuboidal cells
3) Columnar cells.

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75
Q

what shape are cuboidal cells

A

box like.
as tall as they are wide.

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76
Q

what shape are squamous cells?

A

flattened cells

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77
Q

what shape are columnar cells?

A

tall column shaped cells.

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78
Q

what shape are simple epithelia?

A

In simple epithelia, all cells are usually the same shape.

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79
Q

shapes of stratified epithelia?

A

In stratified epithelia, cell shapes usually differ among the different cell layers.

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80
Q

What are stratified epithelia named according to?

A

stratified epithelia are named according to cells in the apical layer. e.g. stratified squamous, stratified columnar.

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81
Q

Describe the Simple Epithelium of the digestive system.

A

Single cell layer involved primarily in absorption, secretion and filtration

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82
Q

What is simple cuboidal epithelium involved in in the digestive system?

A

Involved in secretion and absorption

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83
Q

What do Simple cuboidal epithelium form?

A

They form the walls of the smallest ducts or glands.

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84
Q

What does simple columnar epithelium line in the digestive system?

A

Line the digestive tract from stomach to
rectum and are most associated with
absorption and secretion

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85
Q

What are the two types of Simple columnar epithelium in the digestive system?

A

1) Dense microvilli on apical surface of absorptive cells.
2) Secretory cells that produce mucous.

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86
Q

What is the most widespread of the stratified epithelia?

A

stratified squamous epithelium

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87
Q

Examples of non-keratinised stratified epithelium?

A

Oesophagus, mouth, skin, cornea.

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88
Q

what do non-keratinised stratified epithelium require to prevent drying?

A

Require secretions to prevent drying

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89
Q

What are some examples of keratinised stratified Epithelium?

A
  • Palms and soles
  • Resistant to abrasion
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90
Q

What is keratinised Stratified Epithelium resistant to?

A

resistant to abrasion.

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91
Q

As the top layer of Stratified Epithelium is worn away, what happens?

A

Replaced by basal cells beneath

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92
Q

Stratified cuboidal epithelium is…

A

…rare in the body

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93
Q

Where is Stratified cuboidal epithelium found?

A

found in the ducts of some larger glands including the pancreatic duct.

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94
Q

Stratified columnar epithelium is …

A

….rare in the body

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95
Q

where is Stratified columnar epithelium found?

A

found in the pharynx / salivary glands, urethra

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96
Q

Only the […] layer is columnar

A

Only the apical layer is columnar

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97
Q

There are several different kinds of connective tissue, all originating from …

A

… a derivative of mesoderm called mesenchyme.

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98
Q

What is mesenchyme?

A

connective tissue found mostly during embryonic development. Composed mainly of
ground substance with few cells and fibres.

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99
Q

What are the main connective tissues?

A
  1. Loose connective tissue
  2. Dense connective tissue
  3. Adipose tissue
  4. Lymphoid tissue
  5. Cartilage
  6. Bone
  7. Blood and blood-forming tissue
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100
Q

Connective tissue are the most…

A

…abundant and widespread primary tissue in the body

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101
Q

Major functions of connective tissue?

A

 Binding and support
 Protection
 Insulation
 Transportation (as blood)

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102
Q

What are the main characteristics of connective tissue?

A

1) Common Origin
2) Degrees of vascularity
3) Extracellular matrix

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103
Q

Where do connective tissue originate from?

A

All arise from mesenchyme undifferentiated embryonic tissue.

Example: Most blood cells are produced by the mesenchymal tissue in the bone marrow.

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104
Q

Some connective tissues receive a …

A

… poor blood supply

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105
Q

Some connective tissues receive a poor blood supply.

Whereas others are…

A

…richly supplied by blood vessels

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106
Q

What do connective tissues contain?

A

they contain a largely non living extracellular matrix, some are able to bear weight, and withstand great tension and endure trauma.

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107
Q

3 main structural elements of connective tissue?

A

1) ground substance
2) fibres
3) cells

108
Q

what do ground substance and fibres make up?

A

make up the extracellular matrix.

109
Q

the extracellular matrix fills what?

A

The extracellular matrix fills the spaces between cells and binds cells and tissues together.

110
Q

connective tissue are very…

A

… diverse

111
Q

why are connective tissues very diverse?

A

delicate packaging around organs to the rope like tendons and ligaments.

112
Q

what is Ground substance?

A
  • Unstructured material (liquid, solid, or gel)
  • Fills the space between cells
  • Contains the fibres.
113
Q

what is ground substance composed of?

A

interstitial fluid

114
Q

what is exchanged in ground substances?

A

water, ions, small solutes.

(glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), proteoglycans, cell adhesion proteins)

115
Q

Ground substance holds a …

A

… large amount of fluid.

116
Q

What does ground substance function as?

A

Functions as a molecular sieve through which nutrients and other dissolved substances diffuse between blood capillaries and cells.

117
Q

what are the 3 main types of fibres?

A

1) Collagen
2) Elastic fibres
3) Reticular fibres.

118
Q

what is collagen constructed from?

A

constructed from the protein collagen which spontaneously assemble into cross-linked fibrils that form bundles of fibres.

119
Q

what vitamin is required for collagen production?

A

vitamin C

120
Q

What are elastic fibres?

A

long thin fibres that form branching
networks.

121
Q

What protein do elastic fibres contain?

A

Contain the protein elastin that stretches
and recoils

122
Q

What are reticular fibres?

A

short, fine, collagenous fibres that branch extensively forming delicate networks that surround small blood vessels

123
Q

where are reticular fibres found?

A

found in the basement membrane of epithelial cells.

124
Q

Each connective tissue type has a …

A

…fundamental cell type that exists in immature and mature forms.

125
Q

How are undifferentiated cells indicated?

A

Undifferentiated cells are indicated by the suffix - blast (forming)

126
Q

what does blast mean?

A

forming

127
Q

blast cells are actively…

A

…mitotic cells.

128
Q

blast cells are actively mitotic cells that secrete what?

A

secrete the ground substance and the fibres characteristic of their particular matrix.

129
Q

what are the primary blast cell types of connective tissue?

A

1) Bone = osteoblast
2) Connective tissue proper = fibroblast
3) cartilage = chondroblast

130
Q

what is the odd one out?

A

Blood: Hematopoietic stem cell

131
Q

why is blood the odd one out?

A

because this cell does not reside in its tissue (blood) and does not contribute to the
fluid matrix (plasma).

132
Q

Once they synthesize the matrix, blast cells assume their…

A

…less active mature mode (indicated by the suffix -cyte: fibrocyte, chondrocytes, osteocytes).

133
Q

What do mature cells maintain?

A

the matrix.

134
Q

The mature cells maintain the matrix, but what happens if some trauma occurs?

A

they revert to their blast state to repair and regenerate the matrix.

135
Q

Other than blast, and cytes, what other cells are found in the matrix?

A
  • Adipocytes: lipid storage
  • Wandering/mobile cells (migrate from blood stream)
136
Q

Where do wandering/mobile cells migrate from?

A

from the blood stream.

137
Q

What are some examples of wandering/mobile cells?

A

White blood cells

eg:  Neutrophils
 Eosinophils
 Lymphocytes
 Mast Cells (granulocyte mastocytes): detect
microorganisms and initiate local inflammatory
responses.
 Macrophages: phagocytotic cells that ‘eat’
foreign material, including dead tissue cells

138
Q

What do mast cells (granulocyte mastocytes) do?

A

detect microorganisms and initiate local inflammatory responses.

139
Q

what are mast cells also known as?

A

granulocyte mastocytes

140
Q

what is the function of macrophages?

A

phagocytotic cells that eat foreign material, including dead tissue cells.

141
Q

what is areolar tissue?

A

Loose arrangement of fibres that provide a reservoir for water and salts for
surrounding body tissues (has a gel-like consistency) -> interstitial fluid

142
Q

Cells obtain their nutrients and release their wastes into …

A

…interstitial fluid

143
Q

what kind of consistency does interstitial fluid have?

A

gel-like consistency

144
Q

What does the interstitial fluid contain?

A

Contains fibroblasts, macrophages, adipose cells (either singly or in clusters) and
occasional mast cells.

145
Q

What is areolar connective tissue found as in the digestive system?

A

Found as the lamina propria of mucus membrane epithelia.

146
Q
A
147
Q

areolar tissue is the most…

A

…widespread tissue in the body.

148
Q

Why can areolar tissue be difficult to ID?

A

because it doesn’t look like very much under a regular light microscope. When you first see it, it doesn’t look like any of the images in the book or on a wall chart.

149
Q

Why is it difficult to see areolar tissue under a light microscope?

A

areolar tissue is mostly water with some dispersed cells, fibrous proteins, and fat cells.

150
Q

what is embryogenesis also known as?

A

embryonic development.

151
Q

What are the three parts of the ectoderm?

A

1) Surface ectoderm
2) Neural crest
3) Neural tube

152
Q

What does the surface ectoderm form?

A
  • Epidermis (skin)
  • Hair
  • Nails
  • Sebaceous glands
  • Olfactory epithelium
  • Mouth epithelium (anterior pituitry + tooth enamel + cheek epithelium)
  • Lens, cornea
153
Q

What does the neural crest form?

A
  • Peripheral nervous system (Schwann cells + neuroglial cells + sympathetic nervous system + parasympathetic nervous system)
  • Adrenal medulla
  • Melanocytes
  • Facial cartilage
  • Dentine of teeth
154
Q

What does the neural tube form?

A
  • Brain
  • Neural pituitary
  • Spinal cord
  • Motor neurons
  • Retina
155
Q

important slide?

A

slide 54 - must learn.

156
Q

three overlapping functions of nervous tissue?

A

1) Sensory input
2) Integration
3) Motor output

157
Q

What does sensory input of nervous system do?

A

monitor changes via sensory receptors

158
Q

What does integration of nervous tissue do?

A

processes and interprets sensory input

159
Q

What does motor input of nervous tissue do?

A

initiates a response via effector organs (muscles and glands).

160
Q

What two parts does the nervous system consist of?

A

Central Nervous System
(CNS): brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
consists of bundles of nerves that
extend from the brain and spinal cord.

161
Q

what is the peripheral nervous system further divided into?

A

1) Sensory (afferent) division
2) Motor (efferent) division

162
Q

What is the function of the sensory (afferent) division?

A

conveys impulses to the CNS via somatic
(skeletal muscles / joints) or visceral (organs) afferent fibres.

163
Q

What is the function of the motor (efferent) division?

A

transmits pulse from the CNS to effector organs

164
Q

What two parts does the motor (efferent) division consist of?

A

1) Somatic nervous system (voluntary nervous system)
2) Autonomic nervous system (ANS – involuntary nervous system)

165
Q

What is the function of the Somatic nervous system (voluntary nervous system)?

A

allows conscious control of skeletal muscle

166
Q

What is the function of the Autonomic nervous system (ANS – involuntary nervous system)?

A

Visceral motor fibres that regulate the activity of smooth muscles, cardiac muscle and glands.

167
Q

What are the two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems - typically work in opposition to each other - if one stimulates, the other inhibits.

168
Q

What is the parasympathetic division?

A
  • The “Resting and Digesting” system
  • Keeps body energy use as low as possible as it directs “housekeeping” activities like digestion and elimination of faeces and urine.
169
Q

What does the parasympathetic nervous system stimulate?

A
  • Stimulates watery saliva
  • Increases motility (peristalsis)
  • Increases secretion by digestive organs, relaxes sphincters to allow movement of foodstuffs.
170
Q

What does the sympathetic division do?

A
  • The “Fight or Flight” system
  • Stimulates thick, viscous saliva
  • Decreases activity of the digestive tract
  • Decreases activity of glands and muscles of digestive system and constricts sphincters
171
Q

What do dendrites provide?

A

Dendrites provide an enormous surface area for receiving signals from other neurons.

172
Q

What is the function of dendrites?

A

They convey signals toward the cell body

173
Q

What are axons?

A
  • Axons are a single process that originates from axon hillock and ends at synaptic knob.
174
Q

What is the function of axons?

A
  • Transmits impulses AWAY from the cell body.
175
Q

What do nerve impulses release?

A

Nerve impulses release neurotransmitters into the extracellular space.

176
Q

What is the myelin sheath?

A

Myelinated fibres conduct nerve impulses rapidly.

177
Q

In which part of the nervous system are oligodendrocytes found?

A

CNS

178
Q

In which part of the PNS are Schwann cells found?

A

PNS

179
Q

the myelin sheath wraps itself around what?

A

Wrap themselves around nerve fibres

180
Q

What does the myelin sheath squeeze out?

A

Squeezing out their cytoplasm until many concentric layers of plasma membrane enclose the axon.

181
Q

What is a major advantage of the myelin sheath?

A

Exceptionally good electrical insulation

182
Q

Gaps in between adjacent Schwann cells
are called…

A

… nodes of Ranvier

183
Q

What are nodes of ranvier important for?

A

Important in fast impulse transmission.

184
Q

Where does myelination occur?

A

Myelination in the central and peripheral nervous systems.

185
Q

Describe myelination in the peripheral nervous system.

A

In the peripheral nervous system, Schwan cells wrap themselves around the axon.

186
Q

Describe myelination in the central nervous system.

A

in the central nervous system, myelination is
accomplished by the processes of
oligodendrocytes.

187
Q

In the peripheral nervous system, Schwan cells wrap themselves around the axon; in the central nervous system, myelination is
accomplished by the processes of oligodendrocytes.

What does the mechanism of this wrapping entail?

A

It entails the production of an enormous membrane complex.

188
Q

What is the membrane potential called when the nerve or muscle cell is at rest?

A

resting membrane potential

189
Q

What is the number of resting membrane potential?

A

-70 millivolts (mV)

190
Q

When does a typical neuron fire an action potential?

A

When the depolarization reaches about -55 mV

191
Q

what crosses the neuron membrane very quickly?

A

ions cross the neuron membrane very quickly.

192
Q

What causes sodium channels to open?

A

a stimulus.

193
Q

What do plasma membranes contain a variety of?

A

proteins.

194
Q

Plasma membrane contain a variety of proteins that act as…

A

…ion channels - each selective for a particular ion.

195
Q

Some channels are always…

A

…open

196
Q

What are the “always open” channels called?

A

non-gated

197
Q

Some channels are always open (non-gated), where as others…

A

…open and close due to:

  • Chemically / ligand-gated
  • Voltage-gated
  • Mechanically-gated channels.
198
Q

Describe chemically / ligand-gated?

A

open on binding of a suitable chemical stimulant

199
Q

Describe voltage-gated?

A

open and close in response to changes in membrane potential

200
Q

Describe Mechanically-gated channels?

A

open in response to physical deformation (pressure)

201
Q

What is found at the end of an axon?

A

the synaptic knob

202
Q

What is the synaptic knob specilaised to do?

A

to allow the flow of ions between neurons.

203
Q

What does the synaptic knob contain?

A

contains vesicles which contain neurotransmitters

204
Q

What is the synaptic cleft?

A

a fluid filled space between two neurons

205
Q

How wide is the synaptic cleft?

A

25-50 nm wide

206
Q

Where in the synapse is a neurotransmitter receptor region found?

A

on the membrane of the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron.

207
Q

Describe the process of information transfer across chemical synapses.

A

1) The action potentials arrive at axon terminal
2) Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels become opened
3) Ca2+ enters the cell
4) Ca2+ signals to synaptic vesicles
5) Vesicles move to the membrane
6) Docked vesicles release neurotransmitter by exocytosis.
7) Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors.
8) Binding of neurotransmitters opens ion channels resulting in graded potentials
9) Neurotransmitter effects are terminated.

208
Q

Some neurotransmitters have a …

A

… direct action or indirect action

209
Q

examples of direct action of neurotransmitters?

A

Acetylcholine Receptor. Binding of Acetylcholine, to Ach receptor opens channel through which Na+
ions can pass into the cell.

210
Q

Examples of indirect action?

A

G-protein coupled receptor. Binding of neurotransmitter results in the activation of a G-protein that initiate widespread metabolic changes

211
Q

What do G-protein coupled receptors do?

A

These receptors control second messengers (e.g. cAMP) that regulate ion channels/enzyme cascades.

212
Q

Look at slide 70

A
213
Q

Describe the two neuron chain

A

The first cell body neuron (pre-ganglionic neuron) resides in the brain or in the spinal chord. The pre-ganglionic axox (of the pre-ganglionic neuron) synapses with a second motor neuron (the ganglionic neuron). The post-ganglionic axon then connects to the effector organ.

214
Q

What is a sarcomere?

A

the units of contraction

215
Q

What are the three types of muscle tissue?

A

1) Skeletal muscle
2) Cardiac muscle
3) Smooth muscle

216
Q

What type of muscle tissue is voluntary muscle?

A

Skeletal muscle

217
Q

What type of muscle tissue is involuntary?

A

Smooth muscle

218
Q

What is skeletal muscle?

A

Organs that attach and cover the bony
skeleton

219
Q

Function of skeletal muscles?

A

moves arms/legs etc

220
Q

Where does cardiac muscle occur?

A

Occurs only in the heart.

221
Q

Is cardiac muscle voluntary or involuntary?

A

involuntary

222
Q

Function of cardiac muscle?

A

Constitutes the bulk of the heart walls – not voluntary.

223
Q

Where is smooth muscle found?

A

Found in the walls of hollow visceral organs.

224
Q

What is the function of smooth muscle?

A

Used in the walls of hollow visceral organs to force liquids and other substances through internal body channels.

225
Q

Where is smooth muscle found?

A

Bladder, intestines, reproductive system, arteries, stomach.

226
Q

function of the presynaptic receptors?

A

regulate the release of neurotransmitters in the CNS and PNS

227
Q

What does each muscle fibre contain?

A

myofibrils which run parallel to its length

228
Q

Each muscle fibre contains myofibrils that run parallel to its length.

The contractile elements (sarcomeres) contain even smaller structures called …

A

… myofilaments

229
Q

What are myofilaments made up of?

A
  • Thick filaments (myosin)
  • Thin filaments (actin, tropomyosin and troponin)
230
Q

What are thick filaments made up of?

A

myosin

231
Q

What are thin filaments made up of?

A

actin, tropomyosin, and troponin.

232
Q

What does sarcolemma resemble?

A

resembles plasma membrane.

233
Q

What does sarcolemma do?

A

Acts as the dynamic outer membrane
of the muscle cell.

Sarcolemma also allows calcium uptake.

234
Q

Where is the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

A

in the sarcoplasm

235
Q

What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

A

A modified endoplasmic reticulum that surrounds each myofibril.

236
Q

How does the sarcoplasmic reticulum run?

A

Running longitudinally and communicating at H-zone

237
Q

What is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

A

calcium storage

238
Q

What is Ca2+ ?

A

calcium ions

239
Q

Describe the process that occurs at the neuromuscular junction

A

Calcium ions (Ca2+) causes release of acetylcholine, ACh then binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) on the cell membrane of muscle fibre (carcolemma). Binding of ACh to nAChRs causes depolarization, resulting in muscle contraction.

240
Q

Electrical impulses from nerves travel
along the sarcolemma and into…

A

… T-tubules which reach deeply into muscle cell and to every sarcomere

241
Q

What are T-tubules?

A

At each A band / I band junction the sarcolemma of the
muscle cell protrudes deep into the cell interior forming elongated tubes called T-tubules.

242
Q

Role of electrical impulses in skeletal muscle contraction?

A

These impulses
signal the release of
calcium, causing
muscle fibre contraction at the same time.

243
Q

During contraction, what slides past eachother?

A

the thin filaments slide past the thick ones so that the actin
and myosin overlap to a greater degree.

244
Q

What do myosin heads latch on to?

A

Myosin heads latch onto myosin-binding sites on the actin – cross bridges.

245
Q

Myosin heads latch onto myosin-binding sites on the actin.

What does this form?

A

cross bridges

246
Q

During contraction, the thin filaments slide past the thick ones so that the actin and myosin overlap to a greater degree.

Myosin heads latch onto myosin-binding sites on the actin – cross bridges.

Sliding begins and these heads…

A

… detach and reattach several times during contraction

247
Q

During contraction, the thin filaments slide past the thick ones so that the actin and myosin overlap to a greater degree.

Myosin heads latch onto myosin-binding sites on the actin – cross bridges.

Sliding begins and these heads detach and reattach several times during contraction.

Then the muscle cell shortens. How does this happen?

A

Z- discs are pulled toward the M line and I bands shorten

248
Q

What is the shape and size of muscle fibres?

A

Smooth muscle fibres are spindle shaped cells of variable size

249
Q

Location of nucleus in smooth muscle fibres?

A

a centrally located nucleus

250
Q

Describe the longitudinal layer of smooth muscle sheets?

A

run parallel to the long axis of the digestive tract. On
contraction this shortens or dilates the organ.

251
Q

Describe the circular layer of smooth muscle sheets?

A

run around the circumference of the organ.

On contraction this constricts the lumen of the organ causing it to elongate.

252
Q

What does smooth muscle of the digestive tract contain?

A
  • a small amount of endomysium (fine areolar connective tissue)
  • blood vessels / nerves between smooth muscle fibres.
253
Q

What are Varicosities?

A

release neurotransmitter into a wide synaptic cleft (diffuse junctions)
over several smooth muscle cells.

254
Q

Unlike skeletal muscle, smooth muscle has no…

A

…striations (hence smooth muscle) and no sarcomeres.

255
Q

Smooth muscle fibres contain intertwining…

A

…thick / thin filaments, but are much longer than skeletal muscle.

256
Q

In smooth muscle, the thick filaments have…

A

…myosin heads along their entire length.

257
Q

Compared to skeletal muscle, smooth muscle has fewer…

A

…thick filaments.

258
Q

What is the difference between the ratio of thick to thin filaments in smooth muscle and skeletal muscle.

A

ratio of thick to thin is 1:13 in smooth muscle compared to 1:2 for skeletal muscle

259
Q

In the thin filaments of smooth muscle, there are no…

A

… troponin complexes

260
Q

How are thick and thin filaments arranged in smooth muscle?

A

Thick and thin filaments are arranged diagonally
around the long axis of the cell

261
Q

Describe Intermediate filament-dense
body network found in smooth muscle?

A

lattice arrangement of non contractile
intermediate filaments attached
to dense bodies.

262
Q

smooth muscle is 30 times longer to…

A

… contract and relax than skeletal muscle, at 1 % of the energy cost.

263
Q

Smooth muscle: 30 times longer to contract and relax than skeletal muscle, at 1 % of the energy cost.

This efficiency allows smooth muscle in the intestines to…

A

… maintain ‘tone’ without fatigue.

264
Q

How is smooth muscle regulated?

A

By action potentials or graded (local) potentials, releasing neurotransmitters that stimulate or inhibit a group of smooth muscle cells.

265
Q

Some smooth muscles do not have a nerve supply and instead …

A

… depolarize spontaneously or in response to chemical stimuli linked to G-protein receptors.

266
Q

Some smooth muscles do not have a nerve supply and instead depolarize
spontaneously or in response to chemical stimuli linked to G-protein receptors

Can you give an example?

A

Gastrin stimulates smooth muscle cells of the stomach so that it can churn
foodstuffs efficiently

Systems Physiology (6 decks)

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