tissues Flashcards

1
Q

what does the maintenance of life involve?

A

Maintaining boundaries
Movement
Responsiveness
Digestion
Metabolism
Excretion
Reproduction
Growth

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2
Q

what do we mean by “maintaining boundaries”?

A

Separation between internal and external environments must exist
Plasma membranes separates cells
Skin separates organism from environment

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3
Q

why do humans need movement?

A

Muscular system allows movement
1) of body parts via skeletal muscles
2) of substances via cardiac muscle (blood) and smooth muscle (digestion, urination)

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4
Q

what is contractility?

A

refers to movement at the cellular level

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5
Q

what is responsiveness? give a few examples

A

Ability to sense and respond to stimuli
ex: Withdrawal reflex prevents injury
Control of breathing rate, which must change in response to different activities

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6
Q

what is digestion?

A

Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorption of simple molecules into blood

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7
Q

what is metabolism?

A

All chemical reactions that occur in body cells
Sum of all catabolism (breakdown of molecules) and anabolism (synthesis of molecules)

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8
Q

what is catabolism?

A

(breakdown of molecules)

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9
Q

what is anabolism?

A

synthesis of molecules

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10
Q

what is excretion?

A

Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion

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11
Q

do anabolic reactions require energy?

A

yes

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12
Q

do catabolic reactions require or release energy?

A

release

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13
Q

what are the different types of excretions?

A

Urea (from breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids), carbon dioxide (from metabolism), feces (unabsorbed foods)

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14
Q

what are the different types of reproduction?

A

At the cellular level, reproduction involves division of cells for growth or repair
At the organismal level, reproduction is the production of offspring

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15
Q

what is growth?

A

Increase in size of a body part or of organism

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16
Q

what are the 11 organ systems that work together to maintain life?

A

-respiratory
-integumentary
-skeletal
-muscular
-nervous system
-endocrine system
-cardiovascualr system
-lymphatic system
-digestive system
-urinary system
-male reproductive system
-female reproductive system

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17
Q

what is homeostasis?

A

Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment

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18
Q

what are variables in homeostasis?

A

Variables are factors that can change (blood sugar, body temperature, blood volume, etc.). A dynamic state of equilibrium, always readjusting as needed

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19
Q

what is interstitial fluid? what does it do?

A

The internal environment of vertebrates is called the interstitial fluid (ISF).
It exchanges nutrients and wastes with blood contained in microscopic vessels called capillaries.

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20
Q

what is the PH of blood/interstitial fluid in the body?

A

Our bodies control the pH of our blood and interstitial fluid to within a tenth of a pH unit of 7.4.

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21
Q

what are the processes of homeostasis?

A

1) stimulus (produces change in variable)
2) receptor (detects change)
3)input (information sent along afferent pathway to control center)
4) output (information sent along efferent pathway to effector)
5) responses (of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level

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22
Q

what is the most used feedback mechanism in the body?

A

negative feedback

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23
Q

what is negative feedback inhibition?

A

Response reduces or shuts off original stimulus
Variable changes in opposite direction of initial change

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24
Q

what does negative feedback inhibition allow for?

A

this prevents small changes from becoming too large

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25
Q

what are examples of negative feedback inhibition?

A

-regulation of body temperature
-regulation of blood glucose

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26
Q
A
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27
Q

How does sweating work

A
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28
Q

what is positive feedback?

A

Response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus (not homeostasis)

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29
Q

How does insulin work

A
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30
Q

give two examples of positive feedback inhibition?

A

1) Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
2) Platelet plug formation and blood clotting

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31
Q

explain positive feedback inhibition for childbirth

A

During childbirth, the pressure of the baby’s head against opening of the uterus stimulates uterine contractions.
These cause greater pressure against the uterine opening, heightening the contractions, which cause still greater pressure.
Positive feedback brings childbirth to completion (not maintenance of a steady state).

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32
Q
A
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33
Q

How does platelet formation work

A
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34
Q

what are some major changes, that are programmed to happen?

A

1) puberty and pregnancy.
2) hormone levels responsible for the menstrual cycle
3) the human body reacts to certain infections by raising the set point for temperature to a slightly higher level, and the resulting fevers helps fight infection.

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35
Q

what is the point to having body cavities?

A

Body contains internal cavities that are closed to environment
Cavities provide different degrees of protection to organs within them

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36
Q

what are the two sets of body cavities?

A

dorsal body cavity (back)
ventral body cavity (stomach)

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37
Q

what’s in the dorsal body cavity (two subdivisions)?

A

-cranial cavity
-vertebral cavity

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38
Q

what is the point of the dorsal body cavity?

A

Protects fragile nervous system

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39
Q

what are the subdivisons to the ventral body cavity?

A

-thoracic cavity
-abdominopelvic cavity

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40
Q

what’s in the thoracic cavity?

A

-plural (lungs)
-pericardial (heart)

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41
Q

what is the viscera?

A

internal organs in the ventral body cavity

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42
Q

what are organs in the ventral body cavity held by?

A

mesenteries

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43
Q

what are mesenteries

A

sheets of connective tissues called mesenteries in body cavities moistened or filled with fluid. attaches to body wall

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44
Q

what are tissues?

A

Tissues are groups of cell with a common structure and function.

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45
Q

how are tissues held together?

A

A tissue may be held together by a sticky extracellular matrix that coats the cells or weaves them together in a fabric of fibers.

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46
Q

what are the categories of tissues?

A

-epithelial
-connective
-nervous
-muscle tissue

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47
Q

what is epithelial tissue?

A

Epithelial tissue occurs in sheets of tightly packed cells, covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities.

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48
Q

how are epithelial cells so closely riveted together?

A

Cells of an epithelium are closely joined
- may be riveted together by tight junctions.

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49
Q

why doe epithelium need to be highly revised together?

A

if not tightly packed, since line organs, there could be fluid mix (ex: urine and blood)

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50
Q

what are the two main forms of epithelium?

A

Covering and lining epithelia: on external and internal surfaces (ex: skin)
Glandular epithelia: Secretory tissue in glands (ex: salivary glands)

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51
Q

can epithelium be both lining and glandular?

A

yes!

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52
Q

what does epithelial tissue do?

A

Epithelial tissue functions as a barrier protecting against:
mechanical injury
invasive microorganisms
fluid loss.

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53
Q

what are the two types of epithelial cell surfaces?

A

apical and basal

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54
Q

what is an apical surface?

A

upper free side, is exposed to surface or cavity (air or fluid)

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55
Q

true or false, all apical surfaces are smooth?

A

false. Most apical surfaces are smooth, but some have specialized fingerlike projections called microvilli

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56
Q

what is a basal surface?

A

lower attached side, faces inwards toward body

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57
Q

what does the basal surface attach to?

A

basal lamina

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58
Q

what is the basal lamina?

A

an adhesive sheet that holds basal surface of epithelial cells to underlying cells, is a thin layer of extracellular matrix that lies between epithelial cells and their underlying tissues.

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59
Q

what is the basal lamina composed of?

A

It is composed of collagen and other filaments embedded in proteoglycans.

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60
Q

what is another word for basal lamina?

A

basement membrane

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61
Q

how are epithelia classified?

A

Epithelia are classified by the number of cell layers and the shape of the cells on the free surface.

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62
Q

what is simple epithelium? what is it involved in?

A

has a single layer of cells
- involved in absorption, secretion, or filtration processes

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63
Q

what are the different types of shapes of epithelium cells?

A

-squamous
-cuboidal
-columnar

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64
Q

what does a squamous cell look like?

A

nucleus squished like cell

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65
Q

what does cuboidal cell look like?

A

cubelike shape, with round nucleus

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66
Q

what does a columnar cell look like?

A

nucleus non-circular and more towards bottom

67
Q

what are the two types of epithelium layers?

A

simple and stratified

68
Q

what is stratified epithelium?

A

has multiple tiers of cells.
- more durable than simple epithelia because protection is the major role

69
Q

what is the role of stratified epithelium?

A

durability/protection

70
Q

where is pseudo stratified epithelium found?

A

trachea

71
Q

what is pseudo stratified epithelium?

A

looks stratified, only because the nucleus of different cells are at different levels, but not many cell layers its just an illusion

72
Q

what does simple squamous epithelium do? where is it found?

A

cells are flattened laterally, and cytoplasm is sparse
- where rapid diffusion is priority
-kidney, lungs, heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, lining of ventral body cavity

73
Q

what does Simple cuboidal epithelium do? where is it found?

A

Single layer of cells
Involved in secretion and absorption
Forms walls of smallest ducts of glands. FILTRATION

found in kidney tubules, ducts and secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface.

74
Q

what is simple columnar epithelium?

A

single layer of tall, closely packed cells
Some have microvilli, some have cilia
Some contain mucus-secreting goblet cells (the cilia help to move mucus)
- involved in absorption, secretion of enzymes and mucus

75
Q

what is the difference between microvilli and cilia?

A

Cilia are longer and thicker than microvilli. Cilia can move while microvilli cannot. Cilia look more like hairs, while microvilli are folded cell membranes.

76
Q

where do u find simple columnar epithelium?

A

non ciliated type: found in digestive tract, gallbladder
ciliated type: found in small bronchi and fallopian tubes

intestines

77
Q

what is pseudostratified columnar epithelium?

A

Cells vary in height and appear to be multi-layered and stratified, but tissue is in fact single-layered simple epithelium
Many cells are ciliated
Involved in secretion, particularly of mucus, and in movement of mucus via ciliary sweeping action. Mucus also traps dust and particles.

78
Q

where is pseudo stratified columnar epithelium found?

A
  • mostly in upper respiratory tract (trachea) and tubules in testes
79
Q

what is the most widespread of stratified epithelia?

A

stratified squamous

80
Q

what is stratified squamous epithelium?

A

Free surface is squamous, with deeper cuboidal or columnar layers
Located in areas of high wear and tear (example: skin, mouth, vagina, anus)

81
Q

what are the two types of stratified squamous epithelium?

A
  • keratinized type found in skin;
  • nonkeratinized type found in moist linings
82
Q

what is stratified cuboidal epithelium?

A

Quite rare
Found in some sweat and mammary glands
Typically only two cell layers thick

83
Q

what is glandular epithelia?

A

absorb or secrete chemical solutions

84
Q

what does glandular epithelia in the thyroid gland do?

A

Glandular epithelia in the thyroid gland secrete a hormone that regulates fuel consumption.

85
Q

what does the glandular epithelia that line the digestive and respiratory tracts do?

A

form a mucous membrane that secretes mucus.

86
Q

what does mucus do?

A

lubricates the surface and keeps it moist

87
Q

what is connective tissue?

A

functions mainly to bind and support other tissues

88
Q

what does connective tissue contain?

A
  • contains a sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix.
89
Q

what is the extracellular matrix?

A

Matrix generally consists of a web of fibers embedded in a uniform foundation that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid.

90
Q

what secretes the matrix for connective tissue?

A

the connective tissue cells usually secrete the matrix.

91
Q

what are the major functions of connective tissue?

A

binding and support, protecting, insulating, storing reserve fuel, and transporting substances (blood)

92
Q

what are the 3 kind of connective tissue fibres?

A

-collagenous fibers
-elastic fibers
-reticular fibers

93
Q

what are collagenous fibers?

A

made of collagen, non-elastic and do not tear easily when pulled lengthwise.

94
Q

what are elastic fibers?

A

long threads of elastin and provide a rubbery quality

95
Q

what are reticular fibers?

A

very thin and branched, composed of collagen and form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues.

96
Q

what are the cells in the connective tissue that secrete the ECM? where are they found?

A

Fibroblasts found in connective tissue
Chondroblasts found in cartilage
Osteoblasts found in bone

97
Q

true or false, 3 kinds of connective tissue fibers are all proteins?

A

true!

98
Q

what are blast cells?

A

Immature form of cell that actively secretes the components of the matrix

99
Q

what is a cyte cell?

A

Mature, less active form of “blast” cell that now becomes part of and helps maintain health of matrix

100
Q

what are the major types of connective tissue in vertebrates?

A

loose connective tissue (also called areolar)
adipose tissue
fibrous (dense) connective tissue
cartilage
bone
blood

101
Q

what does loose connective tissue function as?

A

binds epithelia to underlying tissues and functions as packing material, holding organs in place.

102
Q

which types of fibre does loose connective tissue have?

A

all three

103
Q

what are the cells in the loose connective tissue?

A

a) Fibroblasts: secrete the protein ingredients of the extracellular fibers.
b) Macrophages: amoeboid cells that roam the maze of fibers, engulfing bacteria and the debris of dead cells by phagocytosis.
c) Mast cells: mediate inflammatory responses such as allergic reactions

104
Q

what does adipose tissue do?

A

stores fat in adipose cells distributed throughout the matrix
- pads and insulates the body and stores fuel as fat molecules.
- Each adipose cell contains a large fat droplet that swells when fat is stored and shrinks when the body uses fat as fuel.

105
Q

what is fibrous/dense connective tissue?

A
  • fibers organized into parallel bundles to maximize nonelastic strength.
    Very high tensile strength; can withstand high tension and stretching
    Closely packed bundles of thick collagen fibers run parallel to direction of pull
106
Q

where is fibrous connective tissue found?

A

-tendons: attaching muscles to bones
-ligaments: joining bone to bone

107
Q

what is cartilage?

A

Cartilage has an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery matrix made of chondroitin sulfate (a protein-carbohydrate complex).

108
Q

what is chondroitin sulfate?

A

a protein carbohydrate complex

109
Q

what do chondroblasts secrete?

A

collagen and chondroitin sulfate

110
Q

what are chondrocytes? what do they allow for?

A

These molecules also make up part of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells

Chondrocytes found in cavities called lacunae and they maintain and nourish the extracellular matrix.

111
Q

what is cartilage composed of?

A

Cartilage is 80% water, with packed collagen fibers and glycoproteins (chondroitin and hyaluronic acid)

112
Q

what are the two glycoproteins found in cartilage?

A

chondroitin and hyaluronic acid

113
Q

what type of material is cartilage?

A

cartilage is a strong yet somewhat flexible support material

114
Q

where is cartilage found?

A

Cartilage found in nose, ears and vertebral disks.

115
Q

what is the ECM composed of?

A

The ECM is a complex of glycoproteins and other carbohydrate -containing molecules secreted by cells. It contains collagen, proteoglycans, fibronectin and integrins.

116
Q

which connective tissue is mineralized?

A

bones

117
Q

what are the two types of osteo cells in bone?

A

Osteoblasts deposit a matrix of collagen.
Osteocytes maintain the matrix

118
Q

where do the osteocytes and osteoblasts of bones reside?

A

in lacunae (cavities in matrix)

119
Q

why is bone said to be mineralized?

A

calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions combine and harden within the matrix into the mineral hydroxyapatite

120
Q

what is the relationship between bone and cartilage?

A

bone is harder than cartilage without being brittle.

121
Q

what are the microscopic units of mammalian bones that keep repeating?

A

osteons

122
Q

what are osteons?

A

Osteon contains concentric layers of mineralized matrix deposited around a central canal containing blood vessels and nerves.

123
Q

true or false, blood has an extracellular matrix?

A

true

124
Q

what is the matrix of blood?

A

plasma, and its made of:

  • water
  • salts
  • variety of dissolved proteins
125
Q

what are the cells suspended in plasma?

A

-erythrocytes
-leukocytes
-platelets

126
Q

what are erythrocytes?

A

(red blood cells) which carry oxygen

127
Q

what are leukocytes?

A

(white blood cells) which function in defense against viruses, bacteria, and other invaders

128
Q

what are platelets?

A

cell fragments which aid in blood clotting

129
Q

what are nervous tissues?

A

Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals from one part of the animal to another.

130
Q

what is the functional unit of nervous tissue?

A

neuron, or nerve cell which consists of a cell body and two or more extensions, called dendrites and axons.

131
Q

what is the neuron composed of?

A

cell body and two or more extensions called dendrites and axons

132
Q

what are dendrites?

A

Dendrites transmit nerve impulses from their tips toward the rest of the neuron.

133
Q

what are axons?

A

Axons transmit impulses toward another neuron or toward an effector, such as a muscle cell.

134
Q

what are the three types of glia supporting cells?

A

-astrocytes (surround neurons, keep them tight like tight junction)
-schwann: makes myelin for peripheral nervous system
-digodendrocytes: makes myelin for central nervous system

135
Q

what is muscle tissue composed of?

A

Muscle tissue is composed of long cells called muscle fibers that are capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve impulses.

136
Q

what’s in the cytoplasm of muscle fibre cells?

A

Myofibrils

137
Q

what are myofibrils composed of?

A

actin and myosin

138
Q

what is the most abundant tissue in most animals?

A

muscle

139
Q

what accounts for the most energy consuming cellular work?

A

muscle contractions

140
Q

what are actin and myosin?

A

proteins that lead to muscle contraction

141
Q

what are the three types of muscle tissue?

A

skeletal muscle
cardiac muscle
smooth muscle

142
Q

how is skeletal muscle attached to bones?

A

tendons

143
Q

which muscle tissue is responsible for voluntarily movement?

A

skeletal

144
Q

what is another word for skeletal muscle?

A

striated

145
Q

give the characteristics of skeletal muscle?

A

Skeletal muscle also called striated muscle because the overlapping filaments give the cells a striped (striated) appearance.
Cells are called muscle fibers
Contain multiple nuclei

146
Q

where is cardiac muscle found?

A

contractile wall of the heart.

147
Q

what are the characteristics of cardiac muscle?

A

It is striated like skeletal muscle, but cardiac cells are branched.

148
Q

how are the ends of the cardiac muscle cells put together?

A

The ends of the cells are joined by intercalated disks, which relay signals from cell to cell during a heartbeat.

149
Q

what does smooth muscle lack?

A

striations

150
Q

where is smooth muscle found?

A

is found in the walls of the digestive tract, urinary bladder, arteries, and other internal organs, works involuntarily

151
Q

what is the difference between skeletal and smooth muscle?

A

Contracts more slowly than skeletal muscles but can remain contracted longer.

152
Q

what are the shapes of the nucleus of smooth muscle

A

Cells are spindle-shaped, with one nucleus

153
Q

what are examples of smooth muscle use?

A

churning of the stomach and constriction of arteries

154
Q

which cells have a nucleus with a corkscrew appearance?

A

smooth muscle

155
Q

how are the tissues organized in layers in some organs?

A

in multiple

156
Q

what are the vertebrates stomach layers?

A

1) Thick epithelium lines the lumen and secretes mucus and digestive juices.
2) Outside this layer is a zone of connective tissue.
3) Then there are three layers of smooth muscle. The first layer is oblique, the second is circular and the third is longitudinal.
4) Another layer of connective tissue (serosa) encapsulates the entire stomach.

157
Q

what is the peritoneum?

A

the membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity
- covers most of the intra-abdominal organs, and is composed of a layer of mesothelium (epithelium) supported by a thin layer of connective tissue.

158
Q

what is the link between the digestive track and circulatory system?

A

Nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract are distributed throughout the body by the circulatory system.

159
Q

what is the link between the heart, the circulatory system and the respiratory system?

A

Heart that pumps blood through the circulatory system depends on nutrients absorbed by the digestive tract and on oxygen obtained by the respiratory system.

160
Q

what is the difference between mesenteries and peritoneum?

A

mesenteries: stick to the back of cavity
peritoneum: lining

161
Q

how does exchange with the environment happen in the body?

A

occurs as dissolved substances diffuse and are transported across the plasma membranes between cells and aqueous surroundings

162
Q

what does the circulatory system do?

A

shuttles material among all the exchange surfaces within the animal.

163
Q
A