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human physiology > digestion > Flashcards

digestion Flashcards

1
Q

what are the steps to digestion?

A

1) Ingestion: eating
2) Propulsion: movement of food through the alimentary canal
3) Mechanical breakdown
4) Digestion: series of catabolic steps that involves enzymes that break down complex food molecules into chemical building blocks
5) Absorption: passage of digested fragments from lumen of GI tract into blood or lymph
6) Defecation: elimination of indigestible substances via anus in form of feces
 

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2
Q

what happens during ingestion?

A

Food is “packaged” in bulk form and contains very complex arrays of molecules, including large polymers and various substances that may be difficult to process or may even be toxic.

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3
Q

why cant humans use macromolecules like proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in the form of starch or other polysaccharides?

A

Such polymers are too large to pass through membranes and enter the cells of the animal

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4
Q

true or false, the macromolecules that make up an animal are the same that it ingests

A

false. Macromolecules that make up an animal are not identical to those of its food

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5
Q

true or false, all animals use the same monomers

A

true

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6
Q

what does propulsion include?

A

a) Swallowing
b) Peristalsis

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7
Q

what is peristalsis

A

major means of propulsion of food that involves alternating waves of contraction and relaxation by smooth muscles in the walls of the canal, push food along.

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8
Q

what do sphincters do?

A

muscular ringlike valves, regulate the passage of material between specialized chambers of the canal

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9
Q

what is mechanical breakdown?

A

includes chewing, mixing food with saliva, churning food in stomach, and segmentation

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10
Q

what is segmentation?

A

local constriction of intestine that mixes food with digestive juices

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11
Q

what is digestion?

A

-Digestion is the process of breaking food down into molecules small enough for the body to absorb.

-Cleaves macromolecules into their component monomers

-The animal uses these to make its own molecules or as fuel for ATP production.

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12
Q

what are polysaccharides and disaccharide?

A

they are split into simple sugars

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13
Q

how does digestion cleave molecules?

A

Digestion breaks bonds with the addition of water via enzymatic hydrolysis.

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14
Q

what are fats cleaved into?

A

digested to glycerol and fatty acids

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15
Q

what are proteins cleaved into?

A

are broken down into amino acids

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16
Q

what are nucleic acid cleaved into?

A

are cleaved into nucleotides

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17
Q

how do chemical digestion and mechanical segmentation go together?

A

Chemical digestion is usually preceded by mechanical fragmentation of the food (chewing) which increases the surface area exposed to digestive juices containing hydrolytic enzymes

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18
Q

what do hydrolytic enzymes do?

A

Hydrolytic enzymes catalyze the digestion of each of the classes of macromolecules found in food.

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19
Q

what are the two types of digestions that car occur?

A

inside simple columnar cell: intracellular digestion

in lumen/mouth: extracellular digestion

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20
Q

what happens during absorption?

A

The animal’s cells take up small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars from the digestive compartment, a process called absorption.

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21
Q

what happens during defecation?

A

undigested material passes out of the digestive compartment

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22
Q

what does the digestive system consists of?

A

-alimentary canal
-accessory glands that secrete digestive juices into the canal through ducts.
-

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23
Q

what is the alimentary canal?

A

the alimentary canal (also called the digestive tract). This long tube of organs makes a pathway for food to travel through the body.

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24
Q

where does the esophagus lead to?

A

stomach

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25
Q

what happens in the intestines?

A

In the intestine, digestive enzymes hydrolyze the food molecules, and nutrients are absorbed across the lining of the tube into the blood.

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26
Q

where are undigested waste eliminated from?

A

anus

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27
Q

can we ingest more food before the previous meal is digested?

A

yes

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28
Q

what happens after chewing and swallowing?

A

After chewing and swallowing it takes 5 to 10 seconds for food to pass down the esophagus to the stomach, where it spends 2 to 6 hours being partially digested.

Final digestion and nutrient absorption occur in the small intestine over a period of 5 to 6 hours

In 12 to 24 hours, any undigested material passes through the large intestine, and feces are expelled through the anus.

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29
Q

does digestion happen in the large intestine?

A

the large intestine produces no digestive enzymes

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30
Q

is there a sphincter in the stomach?

A

yes two. one at the entry and one at the exit

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31
Q

what is the caecum?

A

The caecum is a pouch in the lower abdominal cavity that receives undigested food material from the small intestine and is considered the first region of the large intestine.

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32
Q

where is the appendix?

A

attached to caecum

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33
Q

what are the accessory glands?

A

The accessory glands include the salivary glands, the pancreas, the liver, and the gallbladde

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34
Q

what initiates food processing?

A

The oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus initiate food processing

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35
Q

where does physical and chemical digestion begin?

A

in the mouth

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36
Q

what does chewing allow for?

A

During chewing, teeth of various shapes cut, smash, and grind food, making it easier to swallow and increasing its surface area

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37
Q

when are salivary glands triggered?

A

Food in the oral cavity triggers the salivary glands to deliver saliva through ducts to the oral cavity.

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38
Q

what does saliva contain?

A

mucin (slippery glycoproteins)

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39
Q

what does saliva allow for?

A

a) protects the soft lining of the mouth from abrasion (1500 ml/day can be produced)
b) lubricates the food for easier swallowing
c) contains buffers that help prevent tooth decay by neutralizing acid in the mouth
d) antibacterial agents in saliva kill many bacteria that enter the mouth with food
e) contains salivary amylase, an enzyme that hydrolyzes starch and glycogen into smaller polysaccharides and the disaccharide maltose.

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40
Q

what does salivary amylase do?

A

enzyme that hydrolyzes starch and glycogen into smaller polysaccharides and the disaccharide maltose.

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41
Q

what does the tongue do?

A

a) tastes food (papillae)
b) manipulates it during chewing
c) helps shape the food into a ball called a bolus
d) during swallowing, the tongue pushes a bolus back into the oral cavity and into the pharynx.

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42
Q

what is the pharynx?

A

The pharynx, also called the throat, is a junction that opens to both the esophagus and the trachea

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43
Q

do we want a bolus to move into the trachea or the esophagus after entering the pharynx?

A

esophagus

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44
Q

how do we avoid food getting into the trachea?

A

When we swallow, the top of the trachea moves up such that its opening, the glottis, is blocked by a cartilaginous flap, the epiglottis.
This mechanism normally ensures that a bolus will be guided into the entrance of the esophagus and not directed down the trachea.

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45
Q

what is the opening fo the trachea called?

A

glottis

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46
Q

what is the covering of the glottis called?

A

epiglottis

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47
Q

true or false, the esophagus has a sphincter

A

true!

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48
Q

what is the uvula?

A

secretes saliva, plays a role in speech, prevents food from entering nasopharynx

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49
Q

what is the function of the larynx?

A

The primary function of the larynx in humans and other vertebrates is to protect the lower respiratory tract from aspirating food into the trachea while breathing

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50
Q

what happens when we are not swallowing?

A

When not swallowing, the esophageal sphincter muscle is contracted, the epiglottis is up, and the glottis is open, allowing airflow through trachea to the lungs.

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51
Q

what happens when we are swallowing (food bolus reaches pharynx)?

A

When a food bolus reaches the pharynx, the larynx moves upward and the epiglottis tips over the glottis, closing off the trachea.

The esophageal sphincter relaxes and the bolus enters the esophagus. After the food has entered the esophagus, the larynx moves downward and the trachea is opened. Waves of peristalsis move the bolus to the stomach.

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52
Q

how does esophagus conduct food from pharynx to stomach?

A

peristalsis

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53
Q

are the muscles at the top of the esophagus voluntary or involuntary?

A

they are striated, therefore they are voluntary

Involuntary waves of contraction by smooth muscles in the rest of the esophagus then takes over

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54
Q

what does the stomach do?

A

The stomach stores food and performs preliminary digestion

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55
Q

what are the folds in the stomach called?

A

rugae

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56
Q

where is the stomach located?

A

Stomach is located in the upper abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm

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57
Q

what does the stomach secrete? what does it do with this

A

secretes a digestive fluid called gastric juice and mixes this secretion with the food by the churning action of the smooth muscles in the stomach wall.

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58
Q

what type of cells is the esophagus?

A

stratified squamous

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59
Q

how come the gastric juices dont digest our own stomach lining?

A

mucus lining

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60
Q

what type of cells are in stomach?

A

-chief cells
-goblet cells
-parietal cells

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61
Q

what is present in gastric juice?

A

HCL
pepsin

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62
Q

what is pepsin?

A
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63
Q

what do chief cells do?

A

makes pepsinogen, then HCL cleaves pepsinogen into pepsin

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64
Q

what do goblet cells do?

A

produce mucus

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65
Q

what do parietal cells do

A

make HCL

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66
Q

what does stomach acid allow for?

A
  • acid disrupts the extracellular matrix that binds cells together.
  • kills most of the bacteria that are swallowed with food.
  • acid denatures protein, activates pepsin, breaks down plant cell walls
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67
Q

what does pepsin do?

A

it is an enzyme that begins the hydrolysis of proteins by breaking peptide bonds adjacent to specific amino acids, producing smaller polypeptides.

68
Q

what are the characteristics of pepsin?

A
  • works well at low pH
  • secreted in its inactive form, called pepsinogen, by specialized chief cells in gastric pits
69
Q

how do pepsinogen molecules have positive feedback inhibition

A

activated pepsin can activate more pepsinogen molecules

70
Q

how do we limit self digestion in the stomach?

A

Parietal cells, also in the pits, secrete HCl which converts pepsinogen to active pepsin. basically, stomach makes enzyme in their inactive form

71
Q

what are enteroendoctrine cells?

A

Other cells in the stomach, called Enteroendocrine cells: secrete chemical messengers

72
Q

what does serotonin do?

A

causes contraction of stomach muscle

73
Q

what does histamine do?

A

activates parietal cells to release HCl

74
Q

what does somatostatin do?

A

various inhibitory functions

75
Q

what does gastrin do?

A

stimulating functions, including HCl secretion

76
Q

what is the stomach’s second line of defence from self-digestion?

A

The stomach’s second line of defense against self-digestion is a coating of mucus which is secreted by epithelial cells. the mucus protects the stomach’s lining

77
Q

true or false, stomach epithelium stays forever.

A

stomach epithelium is continually eroded and completely replaced by mitosis every three days.

78
Q

what are gastric ulcers?

A

lesions in the stomach lining caused by the acid-tolerant bacterium Heliobacter pylori

79
Q

what goes from the stomach to the small intestine?

A

chyme

80
Q

what is the name of the two sphincters of the stomach?

A

coming into stomach: cardiac orifice/sphincter
leaving stomach: pyloric sphincter

81
Q

what causes heartburn?

A

backflow of acid chyme from the stomach into the lower esophagus causes heartburn.

82
Q

when does the cardiac orifice dilate?

A

opening from the esophagus to the stomach, the cardiac orifice, normally dilates only when a bolus driven by peristalsis arrives

83
Q

what is mesentery?

A

a fold of tissue that attaches organs to the body wall. Blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics branch through the mesentery to supply the organs

84
Q

what is the major organ of digestion and absorption?

A

the small intestine

85
Q

what is the longest section of the alimentary canal?

A

small intestine

86
Q

what is the duodenum?

A

The first part of the small intestine.

87
Q

what secretes digestive juices?

A

pancreas, liver, gall bladder, and gland cells of the intestinal wall

88
Q

what happens in duodenum?

A

In the duodenum, acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gall bladder, and gland cells of the intestinal wall

89
Q

what does the pancreas produce?

A

a) several hydrolytic enzymes
b) an alkaline solution, rich in bicarbonate, which buffers the acidity of the chyme from the stomach.

90
Q

what does the liver produce?

A

bile

91
Q

where is bile stored?

A

gallbladder

92
Q

what does bile salts/acid do? what is this process called?

A

The bile acids will break fats into small drops so that there is a greater surface area for lipase to work. This process is called emulsification.

93
Q

how is bile amphipathic?

A

Bile salts/acids are amphipathic. The hydrophobic portion is provided by a cholesterol-like compound, and the hydrophilic portion is provided by an amino acid.

94
Q

what are bile pigments?

A

pigments that are by-products of red blood cell destruction in the liver.

95
Q

how are bile pigments eliminated?

A

Bile pigments are eliminated from the body with the feces.

96
Q

the digestion of starch and glycogen is special. what happens during it?

A

begins by salivary amylase in the oral cavity
and continues in the small intestine.
- pancreatic amylases hydrolyze starch, glycogen, and smaller polysaccharides into disaccharides.
- disaccharidases hydrolyze each disaccharide into monomers.
- maltase splits maltose, sucrase splits sucrose
- disaccharidases are built into the membranes and extracellular matrix of the intestinal epithelium (site of sugar absorption).

97
Q

where does small intestine get enzymes from?

A

pancreas

98
Q

where are disacharidases found?

A

disaccharidases are built into the membranes and extracellular matrix of the intestinal epithelium (site of sugar absorption)

99
Q

how does the body store glucose?

A

as glycogen

100
Q

how are Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, and Carboxypeptidase secreted?

A

by the pancreas in their inactive form

101
Q

where is dipeptidase found?

A

in the lining of the intestine

102
Q

how does the digestion of proteins happen?

A

Digestion of proteins in the small intestine completes the process begun by pepsin.
Enzymes in the duodenum dismantle polypeptides into their amino acids or into small peptides that in turn are attacked by other enzymes.
- Trypsin and chymotrypsin attack peptide bonds adjacent to specific amino acids, breaking larger polypeptides into shorter chains.
- Dipeptidase, attached to the intestinal lining, split smaller chains.
- Carboxypeptidases and aminopeptidase split off one amino acid from the carboxyl or amino end of a peptide, respectively.

103
Q

what do carboxypeptidase and aminopeptidase do?

A

Carboxypeptidases and aminopeptidase split off one amino acid from the carboxyl or amino end of a peptide, respectively

104
Q

what does dipeptidase do?

A

attached to the intestinal lining, split smaller chains after the pancreatic enzymes act

105
Q

which enzymes are secreted by the pancreas for protein digestion?

A

carboxypeptidase, trypsin and chymotrypsin

106
Q

how do Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, and Carboxypeptidase get activated?

A
  • An intestinal enzyme, enteropeptidase, converts inactive trypsinogen into active trypsin.
  • Active trypsin then activates the other two and also further converts trypsinogen to trypsin
107
Q

what is aminopeptidase secreted by?

A

intestinal epithelium

108
Q

what happens during the digestion of nucleic acid?

A
  • A team of enzymes called nucleases hydrolyzes DNA and RNA into their component nucleotides.
  • Other hydrolytic enzymes then break nucleotides down further into nucleosides, nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphates
109
Q

which macromolecule gets slightly s=digested in the stomach?

A

proteins (thanks to pepsin)

110
Q

where does nucleic acid digestion happen?

A

all in small intestine

111
Q

which macromolecule only gets digested by pancreatic enzymes, and no epithelium secreted enzymes?

A

fats (only lipase digests them)

112
Q

how are fats digested?

A

after bile makes fat molecules into small droplets, Large surface area of these small droplets is exposed to lipase, an enzyme that hydrolyzes fat molecules into glycerol, fatty acids, and monoglycerides.

113
Q

which pancreatic enzyme digests fats?

A

lipase

114
Q

what’s a vili?

A

Intestinal villi are tiny, finger-like projections made up of cells that line the entire length of your small intestine. Villi absorb nutrients from the food you eat and then shuttle them into your bloodstream so they can travel where they’re needed

115
Q

what happens to fats after they are digested?

A

products are absorbed by epithelial cells and recombined into triglycerides.

-They are then coated with phospholipids, cholesterol and proteins. This forms water-soluble globules called chylomicrons.

-The chylomicrons are transported from the epithelial cell into a lacteal, which is a lymphatic vessel at the core of each villus.

A lacteal is also known as a lymphatic capillary.
- the lacteals converge into the larger vessels of the lymphatic system, eventually draining into large veins that return blood to the heart

116
Q

what are chylomicrons?

A

formed after fats are digested and reassembled into triglycerides, and aborde into epithelium to be coated with phospholipids, cholesterol and proteins to be water-soluble

117
Q

where does most digestion occur?

A

duodenum

118
Q

what are the functions of the jejunum and ileum

A

mainly in the absorption of nutrients and water, because to enter the body, nutrients in the lumen must pass the lining of the digestive tract.

119
Q

what does the enormous size of the small intestine allow for?

A

Enormous surface of the small intestine is an adaptation that greatly increases the rate of nutrient absorption

120
Q

what is a lacteal?

A

a single vessel of the lymphatic system called a lacteal

121
Q

what do microvilli allow for?

A

Microvilli located in the small intestine function to increase the surface area in order to absorb more nutrients.

122
Q

what penetrates each villus?

A

Penetrating the core of each villus is a net of microscopic blood vessels (capillaries) and a single vessel of the lymphatic system called a lacteal.

123
Q

how do nutrients enter the body after digestion?

A

they travel through the lacteal to enter the lymphatic system

124
Q

what do we call microscopic blood vessels?

A

capillaries

125
Q

how are nutrients absorbed?

A

Nutrients are absorbed across the intestinal epithelium and then across the unicellular epithelium of capillaries or lacteals.

126
Q

what are the two layers of the epithelial that separate nutrients from the bloodstream?

A

epithelium of intestine
epithelium of capillaries

127
Q

how are lipids absorbed into the body?

A

through the lacteal system (and need to be dissolved cause lacteal is liquid)

128
Q

what are the different types of transport across the epithelium?

A

active and passive

129
Q

what is passive transport? give an example of passive transport in digestion

A

down their concentration gradients from the lumen of the intestine into the epithelial cells, and then into capillaries
ex fructose

130
Q

what is active transport. give an example of active transport in digestion

A

pumped against concentration gradients by epithelial membranes.
- allows absorption of a much higher proportion of the nutrients in the intestine than would be possible with passive diffusion
ex amino acids, small peptides, vitamins, and glucose

131
Q

where do the nutrients go after absorption?

A

to the liver, and then to the heart

132
Q

what is the hepatic portal?

A

all capillaries converge here into one thick tube and then.
carries nutrient-rich blood from the capillaries of the villi to the liver, then to the heart

133
Q

what does the liver do?

A

The liver regulates nutrient distribution, interconverts many organic molecules, and detoxifies many organic molecules

134
Q

what has first access to amino acids and sugars absorbed?

A

liver
The liver modifies and regulates this varied mix before releasing materials back into the blood stream

135
Q

what is the glucose concentration in the blood?

A

0.1 percent

136
Q

what is most of the undigestible material?

A

cellulose from plant cells

137
Q

what happens when we smell, taste or see food?

A

When we see, smell, or taste food, impulses from the brain initiate the secretion of gastric juice (the fluid released by the stomach wall, includes enzymes, hydrochloric acid and mucus).

138
Q

what does gastrin do?

A

As it recirculates, gastrin stimulates further secretion of gastric juice.
If the pH of the stomach contents becomes too low, the acid will inhibit the release of gastrin.

139
Q

what are enterogastrones secreted by?

A

are secreted by the walls of the duodenum.

140
Q

what neutralizes the acidic chyme?

A

bicarbonate, and its secreted by the pancreas

141
Q

how is secretin released and what does it do?

A

The acidic pH of the chyme entering the duodenum stimulates epidermal cells to release the hormone secretin which signals the pancreas to release bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme.

142
Q

what is CCK?

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK), secreted in response to the presence of amino acids or fatty acids, causes the gallbladder to contract and release bile into the small intestine and triggers the release of pancreatic enzymes.

143
Q

what is CCK released from?

A

secreted in response to the presence of amino acids or fatty acids,

144
Q

what happens if the chyme is too rich in fats?

A

causes the duodenum to release other enterogastrones that inhibit peristalsis by the stomach, slowing entry of food. In addition, when the chyme is rich in fats, the high levels of secretin and CCK will act on the stomach to inhibit peristalsis and secretion of gastric juices, thereby slowing digestion.

145
Q

what does CCK tell the stomach?

A

dont send more chyme, cause we’re not done digesting the chyme from before, so if there’s some present

146
Q

what is another word for the large intestine?

A

the colon

147
Q

how is the small intestine connected to the large intestine?

A

The large intestine, or colon is connected to the small intestine at a T-shaped junction where a sphincter controls the movement of materials.

148
Q

what are the differences between the small and large intestine?

A
  • colon does not contain villi
  • colon contains more mucous secreting Goblet cells than the small intestine
149
Q

what is the cecum?

A

Cecum of humans has a fingerlike extension, the appendix, that makes a minor contribution to body defense

150
Q

what is the appendix?

A

Cecum of humans has a fingerlike extension, the appendix, that makes a minor contribution to body defense.

151
Q

what is the function of the colon?

A

A major function of the colon is to recover water (entered the alimentary canal as the solvent to various digestive juices)

152
Q

why does the colon need to recover water?

A

cause lots of it is used as a solvent for various digestive juices

153
Q

where is most of the water reabsorbed?

A

small intestine

154
Q

true or false, feces become more solid as they move along colon

A

true!

155
Q

how does diarrhea happen?

A

Diarrhea results if insufficient water is re- absorbed into the body from the colon.

156
Q

how does constipation happen?

A

Constipation results if too much water is re-absorbed into the body from the colon

157
Q

what is the most common inhabitant of the colon?

A

Escherichia coli

158
Q

what do colon bacteria release as a result of their metabolism?

A

As a byproduct of their metabolism, many colon bacteria generate gases, including methane and hydrogen sulfide

159
Q

why are bacteria in our colon good for our health?

A

Some bacteria produce vitamins, including biotin, folic acid, vitamin K, and several B vitamins, which supplement our dietary intake of vitamins.

160
Q

what vitamins do bacteria in our colon make?

A

biotin, folic acid, vitamin K, and several B vitamins

161
Q

what do feces contain?

A

Feces contain masses of bacteria and undigested materials including cellulose

162
Q

what do humans do with cellulose?

A

Cellulose fibers have no caloric value to humans.
Cellulose in the diet helps move food along the digestive tract.

163
Q

do cellulose fibers contain salt?

A

may also contain excess salts that are excreted into the lumen of the colon

164
Q

what is the terminal position of the colon?

A

rectum

165
Q

are the two sphincters between the anus and the rectum involuntary or voluntary?

A

Between the rectum and the anus are two sphincters, one involuntary and one voluntary

166
Q

what creates the urge to defecate?

A

Once or more each day, strong contractions of the colon create an urge to defecate.

167
Q

where are nutrients absorbed?

A

he walls of the small intestine absorb the digested nutrients into the bloodstream. The blood delivers the nutrients to the rest of the body.

human physiology (10 decks)

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