TIG053 Språk och Tanke Flashcards

Question

Inflectional Affixes

Answer 1

Morphemes that are added to convey grammatical information such as tense, number, or case. Ex. "Cat" → "Cat-s", "Run" → "Runn-ing"

Answer 2

The affixes that are most likely to be used on novel words or when a new word is coined in the language and inflected or derived forms are based on this. They are commonly used and can be freely applied to create new words or forms in a language. Ex. In English, "-ize" ("Terror-ize", "Hospital-ize")

Answer 3

Nouns are either masculine or feminine Ex. In Spanish, "El Sol" and "La Luna"

Answer 4

A linguistic concept where two or more words are commonly used together as a single, cohesive unit of meaning. Multiword units have meanings that are distinct from the sum of their parts. Ex. "Kick the Bucket", "Actions speak louder than words", "Under the Weather"

Answer 5

Refers to the adjustment or modification of a linguistic form to match another linguistic element within a particular context.

Answer 6

Refer to the different ways a word can appear based on variations in its structure. Ex. Inflected Form (Indicate Grammatical, "Walk" → "Walked"), Compound Form ("Fire" + "Man" → "Fireman")

Answer 7

Also known as Grammatical Words or Closed-Class. A type of word that primarily serves a grammatical function in a sentence rather than conveying specific lexical meaning. Ex. "The", "A", "My", "But"

Answer 8

A form that does not exist as a word in the language in question

Answer 9

The base or dictionary form of a word. Refers to the particular form that is chosen by convention to represent the lexeme. Ex. "Run", "Jump"

Answer 10

Account of language production that says that first a frame is developed at some level of processing and then relevant items are slotted into the frame. Ex. In the lexical insertion stage of production, the speaker might want to talk about dog, chase and cat and have the frame "The N V the N". The slots (shown by N for noun and V for verb) received the fillers "dog", "chase" and "cat".

Answer 11

An abstract unit of meaning that represents a set of related words sharing a common core meaning. Refers to the set of all the inflected or alternating forms in the paradigm of a single word. Ex. The lexeme for the word "run" includes all its inflected forms such as "running," "ran," and "runs," as well as derived forms like "runner" and "runnable."

Answer 12

Words that consist of more than one morpheme. Ex. "Unhappiness"

Answer 13

Involves adding affixes to a word to indicate grammatical features such as tense, aspect, mood, number, case, or comparison.

Answer 14

Involves adding affixes to a word to create a new word with a different meaning or belonging to a different word class (part of speech).

Answer 15

Place of Articulation. Consonants. A consonant produced by using both lips.

Answer 16

Place of Articulation. Consonants. A consonant produced with the upper teeth and the lower lip.

Answer 17

Place of Articulation. Consonants. A consonant produced with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge.

Answer 18

Place of Articulation. Consonants. A consonant produced with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth.

Answer 19

Place of Articulation. Consonants. A consonant produced with the tongue tip between the upper and lower teeth. The tongue tip is between the teeth.

Answer 20

Place of Articulation. Consonants. A consonant produced raising the tongue to the palate.

Answer 21

Place of Articulation. Consonants. A consonant produced by raising the back of the tongue to the velum.

Answer 22

Place of Articulation. Consonants. The articulation is between the back of the tongue and the soft-palate.

Answer 23

A sound produced in the space between the vocal folds

Answer 24

Manner of Articulation. Consonant. Consonant sounds produced by completely obstructing the airflow in the vocal tract, then releasing it suddenly.

Answer 25

Manner of Articulation. Consonant. Consonant sounds produced by forcing air through a narrow channel in the vocal tract, creating friction or turbulence.

Answer 26

Manner of Articulation. Consonant. Affricates are consonant sounds that begin with a stop closure and then realease into a fricative position. They involve a gradual release of the airflow.

Answer 27

Manner of Articulation. Consonant. Consonant sounds produced by lowering the soft palate, allowing air to flow through the nasal cavity while blocking the oral cavity.

Answer 28

Manner of Articulation. Consonant. Consonant sounds characterized by a partial closure in the vocal tract, allowing air to flow around the sides.

Answer 29

“Semivowels”, they are consonant sounds that closely resemble vowels in their articulation, they involve a smooth transition from a more constricted to a more open articulation.

Answer 30

A speech sound produced by restricting the airflow in some way. Ex. "K", "R"

Answer 31

A sound produced through the vocal folds without constriction of the airflow in the mouth. 1. Short Vowel 2. Long Vowel 3. Diphthongs 4. Weak Vowels

Answer 32

Vowels that are pronounced relatively briefly (compared to long vowels). They must be followed by a consonant. Ex. "cat" (/kæt/)

Answer 33

Vowels that have phonetically a longer articulation. Can occur at the end of a word with no following consonant. Ex. "cake" (/keɪk/)

Answer 34

Vowels that have phonetically a longer articulation. Vowel sounds where the tongue glides from one vowel quality to another withing a single syllable. Ex. "boy" (/bɔɪ/)

Answer 35

Vowels that are phonetically shorter. Can only occur in unstressed syllables. Have a reduced quality. Ex. "cotton" (/ˈkɒ.tən/)

Answer 36

Place of Articulation. Tongue Position. Vowels. The tongue is positioned towards the front of the mouth, closer to the front teeth.

Answer 37

Place of Articulation. Tongue Position. Vowels. The tongue is positioned towards the back of the mouth, closer to the throat

Answer 38

Place of Articulation. Degree of Openness of the Mouth Vowels. A relatively small degree of openness of the mouth. The tongue is high up (towards the roof of the mouth). The tongue is tense.

Answer 39

Place of Articulation. Degree of Openness of the Mouth Vowels. A relatively large degree of mouth opening. The tongue is towards the base of the mouth. The tongue is more relaxed.

Answer 40

Speech sounds produced with vibration of the vocal folds. Ex. /b/, /z/

Answer 41

Speech sounds produced without vibration of the vocal folds. Ex. /s/, /f/

Answer 42

A unit of sound consisting of a vowel and optional consonants before or after the vowel. They are the building blocks of words. Ex. "but", "ter", "fly" are syllables in "Butterfly"

Answer 43

How the segments making up a word or utterance are hierarchically organized into syllables 1. Onset 2. Nucleus 3. Coda This can vary between languages.

Answer 44

Syllable Structure The part of the syllable before the vowel One or more consonants.

Answer 45

Syllable Structure. The part of the syllable containing the vowel plus any following consonant(s). 1. Nucleus ("Peak") 2. Coda

Answer 46

Syllable Structure. The vowel in a syllable. It has to have a Nucleus.

Answer 47

The part of a syllable after the vowel. One or more consonants.

Answer 48

A syllable that ends with a vowel (or nucleus) and has no coda. Ex. "Go", "She"

Answer 49

A syllable that ends with a consonant (has a coda). Ex. "Cat", "Net"

Answer 50

Two or more consonants in sequence. Ex. "bl" in "blast"

Answer 51

Voice Box. Located in the neck at the top of the trachea and below the pharynx.

Answer 52

Thin strips of muscle in the larynx which can be open, in voiceless sounds, or close together, creating vibration in voiced sounds.

Answer 53

Located within the larynx, place a part in the regulation of airflow during respiration.

Answer 54

A muscular tube-shaped structure that serves as a passage for both air and food.

Answer 55

A small, fleshy, cone-shaped structure that hangs down from the middle of the soft palate at the back of the throat

Answer 56

Refers to the roof of the mouth and is divided into two main parts: the hard palate and the soft palate (velum).

Answer 57

A flexible, muscular flap of tissue located at the back of the roof of the mouth. It separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity.

Answer 58

The bony front portion of the roof of the mouth. It forms the rigid, arched structure that separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity.

Answer 59

A raised, bony ridge located behind the upper front teeth in the mouth.

Answer 60

The process of making one sound virtually at the same time as the next sound.

Answer 61

The process whereby a feature of one sound becomes part of another during speech production.

Answer 62

Pronunciation of a sound with air flowing through the nose, typically before a nasal consonant

Answer 63

The process of leaving out a sound segment in the pronunciation of a word. Ex. “I’m” instead of “I am”

Answer 64

A psychological experience where an individual is unable to retrieve a known word or piece of information from memory, even though they are aware that they know it and feel that it is on the verge of being remembered.

Answer 65

A sequences of sounds, words, or phrases that are challenging to pronounce, especially when spoken rapidly. The likelihood of an error occurring is related to aspects of the production process. Ex. "She sells seashells by the seashore."

Answer 66

A phenomenon where models or algorithms may exhibit a bias towards recognizing and generating commonly used, "real", words more accurately than rare or unconventional words.

Answer 67

Difficulties in word-finding or word-retrieval. Difficulty recalling specific words, names, or terms, even though they may be able to describe the concept or object they are trying to name. Similar to TOT Phenomenon

Answer 68

Speech error where the word produced is similar to the intended word in its sound shape, but not necessarily in its meaning Ex. "Medication" used instead of “meditation” This can happen during Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon. Ex. "He is the very pinnacle of politeness" → "He is the very pineapple of politeness"

Answer 69

Errors where the correct word has been produced, but with the wrong stress pattern.

Answer 70

Wordplay/error in which the initial sounds or letters of two words are swapped to create a humorous or playful result. Ex. "The Lord is a shoving leopard" ("The Lord is a loving sheopard")

Answer 71

Speech-/word error where the wrong element is inserted into the structure being produced. 1. Substitution 2. Blends Involve words that are semantically related (words which have a clear meaning relationship to one another).

Answer 72

Speech-/word errors where linguistic units are entered in the wrong position in a structure. 1. Anticipation 2. Perseveration 3. Exchange

Answer 73

Error of Mis-Selection. One word replaces another word. Phonetic similarity. More likely to involve Antonyms (words that are opposite in meaning). Ex. "Close it so it doesn't go STALE" → "Close it so it doesn't go FRESH"

Answer 74

Error of Mis-Selection. Two words are merged. More likely to involve Synonyms or Near-Synonyms (words that have very similar meanings). Ex. "Stomach"/"Tummy" → "Stummy"

Answer 75

Error of Mis-Ordering. Slip of the tongue. A sound or word from later in the sentence is spoken too early. A type of slip of the tongue in which a sound is used in a word in anticipation of that sound in a following word Ex. "I'm not a candidate for a cabinet position..." → "I'm not a cabinet..." Ex. As in "a tup of tea" (“cup of tea”)

Answer 76

Error of Mis-Ordering. Slip of the Tongue The opposite of anticipation. It occurs when a sound or word from earlier in the sentence is repeated later. Ex. "How many pints in a pi...liter?" Ex. "Black bloxes" ("Black boxes")

Answer 77

Error of Mis-Ordering. Two words swap places. A type of slip of the tongue in which sounds in two words are switched Ex. "Just put a piece of cardboard in it " → "Just pieace a put of carboard in it" Ex. As in "you’ll soon beel fetter" (“feel better”) = Initial sounds change places Ex. As in "stick neff" (“stiff neck”) = Final sounds change places

Answer 78

Speech-/Word Error. A word is left out. Ex. "It is an extremely INTERESTING way to look things up" → "It is an extremely way to look things up"

Answer 79

Speech-/Word Error. An extra word appears. Ex. "He behaved like a fool" → "He behaved AS like a fool"

Answer 80

A free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand alone as a word expressing a meaningful unit of language by itself. Units that can stand on their own. Ex. "Dog", "Happy"

Answer 81

A bound morpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand alone as a word but must be attached to another morpheme to convey meaning. Units that cannot stand on their own. Ex. "-er", "-ing"

Answer 82

Breaking up of complex words into their component parts before looking these up in the mental dictionary during word recognition. Ex. "Unhappiness" is "Un-" is a bound morpheme that indicates negation or reversal. "Happy" is a free morpheme, representing a state of joy or contentment. "-ness" is a bound morpheme that forms a noun denoting a state or quality

Answer 83

Words that are formed from existing words through the addition of prefixes, suffixes, or other morphemes. These morphological processes are used to create new words from existing ones, often to convey different meanings, grammatical functions, or nuances. Ex. "Teacher" from "Teach"+"er"

Answer 84

Transparent relationships exist between words if these relationships are obvious. Ex. "Teacher" from "Teach" + "er"

Answer 85

Relationships between words do not exist (are opaque) if the relationship is not obvious. Ex. "Butterfly" from "Butter" and "Fly"

Answer 86

Idea that different word-formations are derived by rule. Linguistic rules are explicitly defined to recognize and process language patterns or structures. They rely on a set of predefined rules to analyze and interpret language input. These rules may involve syntactic, semantic, or pragmatic aspects of language.

Answer 87

Idea that all forms of a word are listed in the mental dictionary rather than derived by rule. Language input is processed using a precompiled list of known words or phrases. This approach relies on extensive databases or lexicons containing information about words, including their meanings, syntactic properties, and possible contexts of use.

Answer 88

Refers to the initial stage of language processing where raw input, such as text or speech, undergoes basic preprocessing before more sophisticated linguistic analysis takes place. This stage involves converting the raw input into a format that is suitable for further analysis by computational linguistic tools and algorithms. The operations that are carried out on the speech input in order to organize it into useful unit. Analysis of the input sound wave or the visual input that extracts relevant units for looking up entries in the mental lexicon.

Answer 89

Consists of two phonemes or segments of speech that are separated by a boundary, typically at the midpoint of a phoneme. Typically consonant-vowel or vowel-consonant pairs. Ex. /p-ɪ/: This diphone represents the transition from the consonant /p/ to the vowel /ɪ/. It captures the sound produced when transitioning from the "p" sound to the "ih" sound as in the word "pit." Ex. The transition from the "k" sound to the "æ" sound in the word "cat." This transition forms a diphone representing the two consecutive phonemes /k/ and /æ/.

Answer 90

A syllable in a word that is pronounced with greater emphasis or force than the surrounding syllables. Ex. In the word "banana," the stress is typically placed on the second syllable: ba-NA-na.

Answer 91

Unstressed syllables are syllables within words that are pronounced with less emphasis or prominence compared to stressed syllables. Ex. In the word "banana," the stress is typically placed on the second syllable: ba-NA-na, making the other syllables unstressed

Answer 92

Refers to the process of dividing continuous streams of language into smaller, meaningful units. These units can vary depending on the specific task and level of analysis but often include words, phrases, sentences, or phonemes.

Answer 93

A processing error in which one word or phrase is heard as another Misperception, resulting in the listener hearing something other than what the speaker intended. Ex. As in hearing "great ape" when the utterance was “gray tape”

Answer 94

When more than one option is processed or available at the same time.

Answer 95

Parallel Model of Processing. Bottom-Up A theoretical framework in psycholinguistics that explains how listeners recognize spoken words in real-time. The model suggests that during spoken word recognition, listeners initially form a cohort—a set of candidate words—that match the initial sounds or phonemes they hear. As more of the word unfolds, this cohort gradually narrows down until only the intended word remains.

Answer 96

Refers to a group of words or linguistic items that share a common set of initial phonemes or letters and are activated simultaneously during language processing. Ex. As you begin to say "Umbrella", other words will be activated at the "Uh"-sound such as "Under", "Umbilical", "Up", etc. As more of the word is heard, the words that are not "Umbrella" will be inhibited as they don't match up.

Answer 97

Refers to a specific subset of words that share the same initial phoneme or sequence of phonemes.

Answer 98

Connectionist models, also known as neural network models or parallel distributed processing (PDP) models, are computational models inspired by the structure and function of the human brain. These models consist of interconnected nodes (neurons) organized in layers, and they use distributed processing to simulate complex cognitive processes, including language processing, learning, and memory. The terms "connectionist models" and "parallel models of processing" are often used interchangeably,

Answer 99

Connectionist Model (Parallel Model of Processing). A theoretical framework in psycholinguistics that explains how listeners recognize spoken words in real-time. Simulates how words are recognized in the mental lexicon based on the activation of interconnected nodes representing letters, phonemes, and words. The IA Model is based on the principles of interactive processing, parallel distributed processing, and competitive activation. Framework for processing in which information spreads by way of activation from unit to unit within and between levels. It includes the concept of inhibition.

Answer 100

Prevalent in Interactive Activation (IA) Models. Reduction in activation of recognition units such as words that might result for instance from competition between such units.

Answer 101

Theoretical frameworks used to describe how individuals process information in a step-by-step manner when searching through a set of items to identify a target item. The speaker has access to one word at a time following a rather discrete and unidirectional flow of information between levels.

Answer 102

A conceptual metaphor that involves using spatial orientation or directionality to convey abstract or metaphorical meanings. Refers to the conceptualization of understanding or interpreting text in terms of movement or direction.

Answer 103

Refers to the sequential manner in which information is typically processed or presented in languages that are written from left to right, such as English. In left-to-right processing, information is presented in a linear fashion, starting from the left side and proceeding towards the right side

Answer 104

Refers to the process by which individuals retrieve words from their mental lexicon, the mental repository of words and their meanings. It is a fundamental aspect of language processing. Getting hold of the information about a word that is stored in the mental lexicon. Stage of word recognition at which stored information about a word becomes available for further processing.

Answer 105

Step in the Recognition Process (= Knowing which word it is that we have heard). In recognition of words in isolation from context, the point at which enough phonetic information has been heard to leave only one word-form as a possibility.

Answer 106

Step in the Recognition Process (= Knowing which word it is that we have heard). In word recognition, the moment at which it is clear what the word is. The position in the word on a left-to-right analysis of the input, and taking into account contextual constraints, at which it becomes distinct from other words.

Answer 107

Step in the Recognition Process (= Knowing which word it is that we have heard). The point at which a nonword becomes distinct from the existing words in the language.

Answer 108

Part of the Recognition Process (= Knowing which word it is that we have heard). Refers to the finding that items or stimuli that occur more frequently in a given context are processed more quickly, accurately, or efficiently compared to less frequent items.

Answer 109

Part of the Recognition Process (= Knowing which word it is that we have heard). Relates to the finding that linguistic units such as words that have been used a short time ago are easier to recognize than those used longer ago.

Answer 110

Lexical Access Part of the Recognition Process (= Knowing which word it is that we have heard). Notion that knowing you have heard one particular word depends on your having excluded other possible words. Ex. Knowing you have heard the word "cat" depends not just on the sounds of "cat" , but also on knowing that you have not heard the words "cap" , "can" , "cash" Ex. Hearing the nasalisation on the vowel in "spoon" makes it easier to recognise that word because it excludes words that don't end in a nasal consonant, like "spook"

Answer 111

Words that can be grouped together on the basis of their similarity to one another. Ex. "Heat", "Meat", "Feat" Ex. Word-Initial Cohort

Answer 112

Refers to the number of neighbors a word has. Measure based on the count of words that are similar to one another. This can have an effect on both the recognition and production of a word from that neighborhood. A word with few phonologically similar words is said to have a sparse neighborhood, whereas a word with many phonologically similar words is said to have a dense neighborhood.

Answer 113

One approach in spoken word recognition that suggests that in English word searches are started each time a strong or stressed syllable is encountered. Process of breaking the speech input into units for processing/recognition on the basis of where the prosodically salient (prominent) units are. Accounts for some slips of the ear Ex. Hearing "A coke and a Danish" as "A coconut Danish".

Answer 114

The position of the stressed (strong) syllable of a content word is entirely predictable.

Answer 115

Ensures that the speech input is exhaustively broken into words without leaving any residual sounds. Ex. It is more difficult for English listeners to detect the real word "see" when they hear the nonsense word /siʃ/ than when they hear the nonsense word /siʃub / because the residue "sh" in the first case is not a possible word of English, but the residue "shub" in the second case is a possible word, though it happens not to exist as a current word of English.

Answer 116

Refers to the way words are organized in a language to form grammatically correct sentences. Refers to the arrangement of words and phrases within a sentence to convey meaning. It encompasses the rules and principles governing how words are combined to form grammatically correct sentences in a language.

Answer 117

Refers to the vocabulary or the collection of words in a language. It encompasses all the words and phrases that speakers of that language use to communicate. It includes both individual words (such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) and multi-word expressions (such as idioms, collocations, and phrasal verbs). Lexis forms the building blocks of language and is essential for expressing thoughts, ideas, and concepts.

Answer 118

Refers to the words and expressions that an individual understands or recognizes when encountered in reading or listening but may not actively use in their own speaking or writing.

Answer 119

Refers to the words and expressions that an individual can readily use in their own speaking or writing. These are the words that someone is comfortable incorporating into their communication because they understand their meanings, pronunciation, and usage in context.

Answer 120

Refers to a single word or a group of words that functions as a single semantic unit within a language. Lexical units include individual words, morphemes, and multi-word expressions that carry meaning and can be combined to form larger linguistic structures

Answer 121

Also known as content words or open-class words. A category of words in a language that carry meaning and contribute to the substantive content of a sentence. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. A class where words often and easily get added to.

Answer 122

Also known as function words or closed-class words. A category of words in a language that primarily serve grammatical or structural functions rather than conveying specific lexical meaning. Articles, conjunctions and prepositions. A class that don’t freely admit new members, and if they do it takes a long time and not that often.

Answer 123

The idea that signs have two fundamental parts 1. Signifier: The form of the “thing used” to stand for something else. 2. Signified: The thing/idea/concept to which the signifier refers. The relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary, meaning that there is no inherent connection between the two. The choice of signifiers to represent particular concepts or meanings is conventional and culturally determined. Different languages may use different signifiers to represent the same signified.

Answer 124

The study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences 1. Referential Meaning: The basic components of meaning conveyed by the literal use of words, also described as “objective” or “conceptual” meaning. 2. Associative (or Emotive) Meaning: The type of meaning that people might connect with the use of words that is not part of referential meaning. Feelings or reactions to words that may be found among some individuals or groups but not others.

Answer 125

The idea that there are many core blocks of meaning within the one lexeme. Refers to the analysis and processing of linguistic elements that are smaller than whole words. Ex. Semantic Features Approach

Answer 126

A linguistic theory that focuses on analyzing the meaning of words by breaking them down into their component semantic features or attributes. Basic elements, such as “human,” included as plus (+human) or minus (−human), used in an analysis of the components of word meaning.

Answer 127

The idea that core block of meaning reside across individual lexemes. Ex. Semantic (Thematic) Roles Approach

Answer 128

Also known as Thematic Roles or Theta Roles. A linguistic theory that focuses on the relationships between the elements of a sentence and the semantic roles they play in conveying meaning. Refer to the abstract semantic functions or roles that elements of a sentence fulfill with respect to the action or state described by the verb. They are not tied to specific grammatical categories or positions within a sentence but instead reflect the underlying conceptual structure of the event described by the verb. 1. Agent: The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the one who performs the action of the verb in an event. 2. Theme (or the “Patient”): The semantic role of the noun phrase used to identify the entity involved in or affected by the action of the verb in an event. 3. Instrument: The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the entity that is used to perform the action of the verb 4. Experiencer: The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the entity that has the feeling, perception or state described by the verb 5. Location: The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying where an entity is. 6. Source: The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying where an entity moves from. 7. Goal: The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying where an entity moves to

Answer 129

Semantic Roles. The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the one who performs the action of the verb in an event.

Answer 130

Semantic Roles. Refers to the element of a clause that the rest of the clause is "about." The theme is often the subject or the topic of the sentence, but it can also be other elements depending on the context. Ex. In the sentence "The cat chased the mouse," "The cat" is the theme because it is what the rest of the clause (the action of chasing) is about.

Answer 131

Semantic Role. The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the entity that is used to perform the action of the verb.

Answer 132

Semantic Roles. The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the entity that has the feeling, perception or state described by the verb.

Answer 133

Semantic Roles. The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying where an entity is.

Answer 134

Semantic Roles. The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying where an entity moves from.

Answer 135

Semantic Roles. The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying where an entity moves to.

Answer 136

The relationships of meaning between words. These relations play a crucial role in determining the meaning, usage, and organization of vocabulary. Examples: 1. Synonymy 2. Hyponymy 3. Antonymy 4. Homonym 5. Polysemy 6. Homophones 7. Metonymy 8. Collocation

Answer 137

Lexical Relation of Similarity. The lexical relation in which two or more words have very closely related meanings, or the same meaning. Ex. "Happy" and "Joyful"

Answer 138

Lexical Relation of Similarity. The lexical relation in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another. Ex. "Rose" is a hyponym of "Flower"

Answer 139

Hyponymy. The higher-level term in hyponymy. Ex. "Flower"

Answer 140

Hyponymy. Words in hyponymy that share the same superordinate. Ex. "Rose" and "Dandelion" are co-hyponyms of the superordinate "Flower"

Answer 141

(Part of the Prototype Theory). The most characteristic instance of a category Ex. "Robin" of the category of "birds"

Answer 142

A psychological theory of categorization within cognitive science and linguistics that suggests that concepts are organized in our minds around prototypical examples or central instances.

Answer 143

(Lexical Relation of Similarity). To rephrase or convey the essence of a given statement or concept.

Answer 144

Lexical Relation of Dissimilarity The lexical relation in which words have opposite meanings. Ex. "Hot" and "Cold" 1. Gradable Antonymy 2. Binary/Complementary Antonymy 3. Converse/Reverse Antonymy

Answer 145

Lexical Relation of Dissimilarity Words with opposite meanings along a scale. Ex. "Hot" and "Cold"

Answer 146

Lexical Relation of Dissimilarity Antonyms which are direct opposites. Not gradeable. The negative of one implies the other. Ex. "Alive" and "Dead" (not alive implies dead)

Answer 147

Lexical Relation of Dissimilarity Antonyms in which the meaning of one is the reverse action of the other. Ex. "Buy" and "Sell"

Answer 148

Lexical Relation of Dissimilarity A statement, situation, or proposition that conflicts with or negates another statement, situation, or proposition.

Answer 149

Lexical Relation of Lexical Ambiguity. Two words with the same form that are unrelated in meaning. They have separate histories and meanings but have accidentally come to have exactly the same form. Ex. "Bat" can refer to a flying mammal or a piece of sports equipment used in baseball, but these meanings are unrelated

Answer 150

Lexical Relation of Lexical Ambiguity. Refers to the phenomenon where a single word has multiple related meanings. These meanings are often related to each other through a shared underlying concept or semantic domain. Ex. "Bank" can refer to the side of a river (river bank) or a financial institution (bank), but both meanings are related to the concept of a place where something is stored or held

Answer 151

Lexical Relation of Lexical Ambiguity. Two or more words with different forms and the same pronunciation. Ex. "Two", "Too", and "To"

Answer 152

Lexical Relation of Lexical Ambiguity. A word used in place of another with which it is closely connected in everyday experience. Ex. "Wall Street reacted positively to the news." (referring to the financial industry or stock market)

Answer 153

Lexical Relationship. Type of semantic relationship that words have with one another and which arises through their being used in the same contexts together or because the referents for these words are in the same semantic field. 1. Collocation 2. Semantically Related 3. Phonologically Related

Answer 154

Lexical Relationship of Associative. Words that typically occur together in a phrase or sentence. Ex. "Fish" and "Chips", or "Heavy" and "Rain"

Answer 155

A phrase or expression whose meaning cannot be understood from the literal meanings of its individual words. Idioms typically have a figurative or metaphorical meaning that is different from the literal interpretation of the words. Ex. "Kick the bucket", "Bite the bullet"

Answer 156

Fundamental words with which we can describe every other word in that language. Refer to a set of basic, irreducible meanings that are assumed to be universal and innate across all languages. These semantic primes are considered to be the foundational building blocks of human language, providing the basic concepts from which more complex meanings are constructed. Ex. "I", "You", "Good", "Bad", "Mine", Etc.

Answer 157

The study of language in use by analyzing the occurrence and frequency of forms in a large collection of texts typically stored in a computer.

Answer 158

A large collection of texts, spoken or written, typically stored as a database in a computer.

Answer 159

Errors that are claimed to reveal repressed thoughts or feelings.

Answer 160

Free Morpheme. A free morpheme that is a content word such as a noun or verb. Ex. "Happy", "Eat"

Answer 161

Free Morpheme. A free morpheme that is used as a function word. Ex. "The", "an", "on"

Answer 162

Bound Morpheme. A bound morpheme used to make new words or words of a different grammatical category. Ex. Adding "-er" to "Teach" to create "Teacher"

Answer 163

Bound Morpheme. A bound morpheme used to indicate the grammatical function of a word. Also called an “inflection”. Ex. "-ing" added to "Run" to create "Running"

Answer 164

The base form to which affixes are attached in the formation of words. Ex. "Cat" to create "CATs"

Answer 165

Free Morpheme Stems that can stand alone as words and are not required to be attached to any other morpheme. Ex. "Form" to create "Deform"

Answer 166

Bound Morpheme Refers to a stem that cannot function as an independent word or morpheme and must be attached to other morpheme to create a complete word. Ex. "vive" in "Revive"

Answer 167

A Morph is the phonological or orthographical shape of a morpheme An actual form used as part of a word, representing one version of a morpheme. Ex. The English past tense morpheme "-d" in the words "begged", "walked" and "studied" is pronounced in three different ways, [-d], [-t] and [-id] as a result of their environments of occurrence. = They are realized as three different morphs

Answer 168

One of a closely related set of morphs. Ex. The English past tense morpheme "-d" in the words "begged", "walked" and "studied" is pronounced in three different ways, [-d], [-t] and [-id] as a result of their environments of occurrence. They are realized as three different morphs. = The different realization of morphs is referred to as allomorphs.

Answer 169

A new word

Answer 170

The study of the origin and history of words

Answer 171

The process of taking words from other languages. Ex “café” is borrowed from French

Answer 172

Neologisms. Borrowing. A type of borrowing in which each element of a word is translated into the borrowing language. Ex. “skyscraper” in English is a calque from the French “gratte-ciel,” where “gratte” means “scrape” and “ciel” means “sky.”

Answer 173

Neologisms. The process of combining two (or more) words to form a new word. Ex. "Breakfast" + "Lunch" = "Brunch"

Answer 174

Neologisms. Compunding. The process of combining the beginning of one word and the end of another word to form a new word. Ex. "Smog" from "Smoke" + "Fog"

Answer 175

Neologism. The process of reducing a word of more than one syllable to a shorter form. Ex. "Phone" from "Telephone"

Answer 176

Neologism. Clipping. Word-formation process in which a longer word is reduced to a shorter form with “-y” or “-ie” at the end. Ex. "William" → "Willy"

Answer 177

Neologism. Clipping. The process of reducing a word (such as a noun) to a shorter version and using it as a new word (such as a verb). Ex. "Edit" from "Editor"

Answer 178

Neologism. The process of changing the function of a word, such as a noun to a verb, as a way of forming new words. involves changing the grammatical category or function of a word without adding or subtracting any morphemes (in comparison to Backformation). Ex. "Email" can be used as a noun ("Did you get the email I sent?") or as a verb ("I will email you")

Answer 179

The invention and general use of totally new terms. Ex. Trade names, Eponyms

Answer 180

Neologism. Coinage. A word derived from the name of a person or place. Ex. "Boycott" from the person Charles Boycott

Answer 181

Neologism. Coinage. A new word formed from the initial letters of the words. Pronounced as a phrase (compared to Initialism). Ex. "NASA" from "National Aeronautics and Space Administration"

Answer 182

A series of letters representing a phrase, with each letter standing for a word in the phrase. Pronounced by saying each letter individually. Ex. "BBC" from "British Broadcasting Corporation"

Answer 183

A process of forming a new word that is similar in some way to an existing word.

Answer 184

The description of the structure of phrases and sentences based on established categories used in the analysis of Latin and Greek. It categories into 1. Parts of Speech: Ex. Nouns, Verbs, etc. 2. Syntax Etc.

Answer 185

Parts of Speech. A noun is a word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea. Examples include "dog," "Paris," "book," and "happiness."

Answer 186

Parts of Speech. A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun to avoid repetition. Pronouns can represent specific persons or things (e.g., "he," "she," "it") or be more general (e.g., "everyone," "something")

Answer 187

Parts of Speech. A verb is a word that expresses an action, occurrence, or state of being. Verbs can show action (e.g., "run," "eat"), existence (e.g., "is," "are"), or state (e.g., "become," "seem")

Answer 188

Parts of Speech. An adjective is a word that modifies or describes a noun or pronoun, providing additional information about its qualities or attributes. Adjectives answer questions such as "What kind?" or "Which one?" Examples include "red," "tall," and "happy."

Answer 189

Part of Speech. An adverb is a word that modifies or describes a verb, adjective, or other adverb, indicating manner, time, place, degree, or frequency. Adverbs answer questions such as "How?" "When?" "Where?" "How much?" or "How often?" Examples include "quickly," "often," "here," and "very".

Answer 190

Part of Speech. A preposition is a word that establishes a relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence, indicating direction, location, time, or other spatial or logical relationships. Examples include "in," "on," "at," "under," and "between."

Answer 191

Part of Speech. A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence. Conjunctions can join similar elements (e.g., "and," "or") or indicate relationships between clauses (e.g., "because," "although").

Answer 192

A noun such as "Cathy", with an initial capital letter, used as the name of someone or something.

Answer 193

The grammatical connection between two parts of a sentence. 1. Number 2. Person 3. Tense 4. Voice 5. Gender

Answer 194

The grammatical category of nouns as singular or plural.

Answer 195

The grammatical category distinguishing first person (involving the speaker, me), second person (involving the hearer, you) and third person (involving any others, she, them).

Answer 196

The grammatical category distinguishing forms of the verb as present tense and past tense.

Answer 197

The form of the verb used to say what the subject does. Ex. "He stole it"

Answer 198

The form of the verb used to say what happens to the subject, if the subject doesn't perform the action. Ex. "The car was stolen".

Answer 199

Distinction between classes of nouns as masculine, feminine (or neuter).

Answer 200

Approach to Grammar How a language ought to be. An approach to grammar that has rules for the proper use of the language, traditionally based on Latin grammar. The "proper" or "correct" way.

Answer 201

Approach to Grammar. An approach to grammar that is based on a description of the structures actually used in a language, not what should be used.

Answer 202

A method of analyzing the structure of language at various levels, including phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. It seeks to identify and describe the patterns, rules, and relationships that govern how language is organized and used. The investigation of the distribution of grammatical forms in a language. It sometimes uses "test-frames" (= Sentences with empty slots in them)

Answer 203

A grammatical analysis of how small constituents (or components) go together to form larger constituents in sentences. Refers to the breaking down of sentences into clauses, phrases, words or morphemes as per the specific sentential function of each. A sentence can be broken down into more than one level of constituents. Ex “The old woman brought a large snake from Brazil” gas nine constituents, how do these together from a constituents at the phrase level?

Answer 204

A subfield of linguistics that classifies and categorizes languages based on their structural features and properties. The identification of a language as one of a specific type, often based on word order. Ex. SVO, SOV, VSO

Answer 205

The linear order of constituents in a sentence in language typology to identify different types of languages. Ex. SVO, VOS, SOV, etc.

Answer 206

Describes languages in which the verb typically appears at the beginning of a clause or sentence Typically has a VSO order but can also have a VOS order.

Answer 207

Describes languages in which the verb typically appears at the end of a clause or sentence. Typically has SOV word order.

Answer 208

A set of rules defining the possible sentences in a language. It is based on the idea that human language is governed by a set of innate cognitive principles and structures that are shared across all languages

Answer 209

Represents the actual arrangement of words and phrases in a sentence, as it is produced or perceived by speakers and listeners. It reflects the grammatical and syntactic properties of a language, including word order, agreement, and tense.

Answer 210

The underlying structure of sentences as represented by phrase structure rules. It is related to the speaker's intended message or the mental representation of the sentence's meaning

Answer 211

These rules describe the hierarchical organization of words and phrases in a sentence and specify how words are combined to form larger constituents. Ex. Every noun is in a Noun Phrase, every verb is in a Verb Phrase, and every adjective is in an Adjective Phrase Ex. Every phrase has exactly one head and every head is in its phrase Ex. S → NP VP (A sentence consists of a NP followed by a VP)

Answer 212

A situation in which a single phrase or sentence has two (or more) different underlying structures and interpretations. Ex. "Sara caught the butterfly by the tree" Could mean 1) Sara caught the butterfly while she was standing by the tree or 2) Sara caught that butterfly which was fluttering near the tree 1. Global (Standing) Ambiguity 2. Local (Temporary) Ambiguity

Answer 213

The phenomenon in language where a word or phrase has multiple meanings or interpretations. Ex. Homonymy ("A bat")

Answer 214

Underlying abstract representation of a sentence that expresses the logical relationships between entities in the sentence. Refers to the abstract underlying mental representation of a state-of-affairs. Refers to a theoretical representation of the meaning of a sentence that captures its underlying semantic structure. The variant of its syntactic structure which undergoes semantic interpretation. Ex. In a process of "Giving" one expects 1. someone (probably animate) to 2. give someone else (probably animate) 3. something (probably inanimate, material) 1. A Giver 2. A Given-To 3. A Given

Answer 215

The clause is a group of words in a sentence that includes a verb. Ex. "John walked." "They ride on donkeys."

Answer 216

A phrase is a group of words that does not contain both a subject and a verb. Phrases can function as single units within a sentence, but they do not express a complete thought on their own. Phrases can be categorized based on their grammatical function. Ex. "the big dog", "looks pretty"

Answer 217

Open-Class often get new members. Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs. (Not Conjunctions, Determiners or Preposition)

Answer 218

Closed-Class do not get new members that often, and if they do, it takes a long time. Conjunctions, Determiners, Prepositions. (Not Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs)

Answer 219

A group of words centered around a noun that functions as the subject, object and complement in a sentence. It typically includes the noun itself along with other words that modify or complement it. Ex. "The big black cat"

Answer 220

A group of words centered around a verb that functions as the predicate in a sentence. It consists of the main verb along with any auxiliary verbs, complements, or modifiers that accompany it. Verb phrases play a central role in expressing actions, events, or states within sentences and can serve various grammatical functions Ex. "She is reading a book"

Answer 221

Modifiers are words or phrases that provide additional information about other elements in a sentence, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. They serve to describe, specify, or enhance the meaning of the words they modify. Modifiers can add detail, clarify meaning, or provide context within a sentence. Ex. Adverbs, Prepositional Phrases, Adverbial Phrases 1. Pre-Modifiers 2. Post-Modifiers Ex. “The tall majestic oak tree” Tall, majestic (and oak) modifie the noun tree

Answer 222

A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with its object, along with any modifiers of that object. Prepositional phrases function as adverbial or adjectival modifiers in a sentence, providing additional information about location, time, direction, manner, or other aspects. Ex. "After the rain,..."

Answer 223

1. By their movement as a whole around a clause (= We can move the phrase around and it still be grammatical) Ex. "I have a dream", "a dream, I have", "have I a dream" 2. By their resistance to being interrupted (a phrase can't be split up) Ex. "have a I dream"*, "I a have dream"* 3. By their ability to be replaced by pro-forms Ex. "Who had a dream?" → "I had one last night" 4. By their being predicated Ex. "It is a dream that I have" → "It is I who has the dream"

Answer 224

The noun or noun phrase that performs the action or about which something is stated in a sentence It typically answer the question "who" or "what" is performing the action It is usually located at the beginning of the sentence, although it can also appear after the verb in certain sentence structures Ex. "The cat is sleeping" the subject is "the cat" because it performs the action (sleeping)

Answer 225

The noun or noun phrase that receives the action of the verb or that is affected by the action 1. Direct Object 2. Indirect Object Ex. "the apple" in the sentence "He ate the apple" because it recieves the action of "eating".

Answer 226

Receives the action directly from the verb without the need for a preposition. It answers the questions "whom" or "what" after the verb Ex. "She bought a book" the direct object is "a book" because it is the thing being bought.

Answer 227

Indicates to or for whom or what the action is done Typically appears before the direct object Often introduced by prepositions like "to" or "for." Ex. "She gave a book to her friend" the indirect object is "her friend" because it is the recipient of the action (giving).

Answer 228

The part of a sentence that expresses what is being said about the subject It typically consists of the verb or verb phrase and any complements or modifiers that accompany it Ex. "The cat is sleeping" the predicate is "is sleeping" because it expresses the action or state of being (sleeping) attributed to the subject (the cat).

Answer 229

1. The Subject = "She" = The noun/noun phrase doing the action (giving) 2. The Direct Object = "an apple" = Receives the action directly from the verb (giving), without a preposition 3. The Indirect Object = "her sister" = Indicates to or for whom or what the action is done, it is the recipient of the action (giving) 4. The Predicate: "gave an apple to her sister" = It expresses the action or state of being (givining something to someone) attributed to the subject (she)

Answer 230

Premodifiers are modifiers that occur before the element they modify. They provide additional information about the element that follows them. Ex. Premodifiers can include determiners, adjectives, adverbs, or noun phrases Ex. "The big dog barked loudly." In this sentence, "big" is a premodifier that provides additional information about the noun "dog."

Answer 231

Modifiers that occur after the element they modify. They provide additional information about the element that precedes them. Ex. Postmodifiers can include prepositional phrases, relative clauses, or participial phrases. Ex. "The dog with the curly tail barked loudly." In this sentence, "with the curly tail" is a postmodifier that provides additional information about the noun "dog."

Answer 232

1. They have a pivotal ("head") element which is obligatory Optional: Pre-Modifier (before "head") Post-Modifier (after "head") Pre-modifier(s) + head + post-modifier(s)

Answer 233

A framework that focuses on explaining the structure of language by proposing formal systems that generate or describe the infinite set of grammatically correct sentences in a language. This approach is primarily concerned with understanding the underlying rules and principles that govern the formation of sentences rather than simply describing observed patterns

Answer 234

A necessary feature of a language's syntax. Recursion allows for the generation of an infinite number of distinct sentences from a finite set of linguistic rules and elements. A mathematical phenomenon applied to linguistics, where a grammatical structure is repeated within itself again and again. More simply, recursion has also been described as the ability to place one component inside another component of the same kind. Ex. "I know that [she said that [he believes that they will win]]" The clause: "she said that he believes that they will win" is embedded within the larger clause "I know that…" This embedding can theoretically continue indefinitely Resulting in potentially infinite sentences Ex. "Anti-anti-war", "Great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-...-grandchild!"

Answer 235

These are properties that are unique to the human language. 1. Reflexivity (Reflexiveness) 2. Displacement 3. Arbitrariness 4. Productivity ("Creativity", "Open-Endedness") 5. Cultural Transmission 6. Duality ("Double Articulation")

Answer 236

Property of the Human Language. Humans are able to reflect on language and its uses We can use language to think and talk about language itself Makes it one of the distinguishing features of human language Ex. "I wish he wouldn't use so many technical terms"

Answer 237

Property of the Human Language. Humans can refer to past and futures time Allows language users to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment Allows us to talk about things and places whose existence we cannot even be sure of Ex. Angels, fairies, Santa Claus, Superman, heaven, hell

Answer 238

Property of the Human Language. There is no "natural" connection between a linguistic form and its meaning Ex. "Dog" has no natural or "iconic" relationship with a hairy four-legged barking object There are some words in language with sounds that seem to "echo" the sounds of objects or activities and hence seem to have a less arbitrary connection Ex. Cuckoo, crash, slurp, squelch or whirr

Answer 239

Property of the Human Language. The potential number of utterances in any human language is infinite. Ex. Cicadas have four signals to choose from, Vervet monkeys have thirty-six vocal calls, Honeybee will fail to communicate location if the location is really "new".

Answer 240

The limiting feature of animal communication is described in this term Each signal in the system is fixed as relating to a particular object or occasion Ex. Monkey couldn't combine CHUTT (for snakes) and RRAUP (for eagles) to CHUTT-RRAUP when a flying snake-like creature flew by

Answer 241

Property of the Human Language. A language is passed on from one generation to the next Humans are born with some kind of predisposition to acquire language in a general sense, but we are not born with the ability to produce utterances in a specific language such as English (Animals are born with a set of specific signals that are produced instinctively.) Birds in isolation will develop (abnormal) songs Human infants brought up in isolation produce no "instinctive" language.

Answer 242

Property of the Human Language. Human language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. 1. Speech production: Physical Level at which we can produce individual sounds (n, b, i, …) 2. At another level we form meaning by combining these ("bin") that is different from another combination ("nib").

Answer 243

Bee communication. When a honeybee finds a source of nectar and returns to the beehive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar Different types of dances communicate the exact location However, limited type. Must be a recent food source. If the food source is really "new", they will fail to locate it (ex. can't signal "up")

Answer 244

The subject performs the action described by the verb, and the object receives the action. (SVO). Ex. "The cat (subject) chased (verb) the mouse (object)."

Answer 245

The object of the action becomes the subject of the sentence, and the subject may be omitted or appear as an agent introduced by the preposition "by". (OVS) Ex. "The mouse (subject) was chased (verb) by the cat (agent)."

Answer 246

Seeks to explain how speakers of a language are able to produce and understand an infinite number of grammatically correct sentences, despite having finite knowledge of their language.

Answer 247

Rules that govern the formation and interpretation of individual words or lexemes in a language. These rules specify how words are inflected, derived, or modified to convey different meanings, grammatical functions, or syntactic roles within sentences. Lexical rules operate at the level of individual words and are distinct from syntactic rules, which govern the arrangement and combination of words in phrases and sentences. Ex. In English, the verb "walk" inflects to "walks" in the third person singular present tense.

Answer 248

A branch of linguistics that deals with the rules governing the structure of sentences in a language and how words are combined to form phrases and sentences. It is concerned with the study of sentence structure, word order, and the relationships between different elements within sentences.

Answer 249

Refer to the hierarchical arrangement of words and phrases within sentences according to the rules of syntax. These structures capture the relationships between different elements of a sentence and help to determine its grammaticality and meaning. Ex. Phrases (Noun Phrases, Verb Phrases, etc.), Heads and modifiers, Tree Diagrams

Answer 250

1. Conceptualization: Initial stage of language production, where a pre-verbal message is generated based on the speaker’s or writer’s intentions. - Macro- and Microplanning 2. Formulation: Part of the language production process that imposes linguistic form on the abstract pre-verbal message. - Grammatical Encoding - Functional Processing - Lexical Selection - Function Assignment - Phonological Encoding - Positional Processing 3. Articulation: Final stage of the speech production process, when the sounds of words are pronounced, as the speaker implements a phonetic plan.

Answer 251

A speech act refers to the functional meaning of an utterance within a particular context, focusing on what the speaker intends to accomplish with their words. Constatives, Perfomatives 1. Locutionary Act 2. Illocutionary Force 3. Perlocutionary Effect

Answer 252

Process of selecting a series of speech acts to complete a communication goal. It involves the strategic planning of the overall content, ideas, and structure of a communicative act. Discourse and genre considerations for overall communicative goal. Ex. 1. Linearisation 2. Main Structure 3. Side Structure 4. Instrumentality

Answer 253

Process of determining the pre-verbal message for each speech act. It involves the detailed planning of linguistic elements at the level of syntax, semantics, and morphology, as well as the selection and arrangement of words and phrases. Some semantic and syntactic considerations for a specific speech act in preparing the pre-verbal message

Answer 254

Aspect of macroplanning where the order for expressing information is chosen.

Answer 255

Refers to the primary or central elements that convey the main message or idea of the sentence.

Answer 256

Included additional elements that provide context, background, or elaboration but are not essential for the grammatical or semantic completeness of the sentence.

Answer 257

Idea that speakers choose to express information that is vital to their communicative intention, and do not explicitly express information that they can assume the listener will infer. This means that speakers tailor their utterances to include only the information necessary for the listener to understand their intended meaning, without explicitly stating information that can be inferred or assumed.

Answer 258

Refers to a hypothetical language or representational system that is thought to underlie human thought processes and mental representations

Answer 259

Part of the Formulation process of Speech Production. Refers to the cognitive process by which speakers transform their intended meanings into grammatically structured utterances during language production. It involves selecting appropriate words, arranging them in the correct order, and applying grammatical rules to convey the intended message effectively. 1. Functional Processing 2. Positional Processing

Answer 260

Part of the Grammatical Encoding. Part of the formulation component in language planning, where lemmas are selected and assigned to the different jobs required by the sentence. 1. Lexical Selection 2. Function Assignment

Answer 261

Part of the Grammatical Encoding. Part of the Formulation component. Choosing the words.

Answer 262

Part of the Grammatical Encoding. Part of the formulation component, at 1. Functional Processing. When the lemmas selected to express the message are given their roles in the sentence. Carried out during functional processing as part of message formulation. 1. Grammatical Subject 2. Grammatical Object

Answer 263

Part 2 of Grammatical Encoding in the Formulation Process. Creates a sentence frame for the message, into which the lemmas are organized. 1. Constituent Assembly 2. Content Words 3. Function Words

Answer 264

Creates a sentence frame for the message (the lemmas received from the Functional Processing of Grammatical Encoding. Creation of a syntactic frame for a sentence during the process of grammatical encoding, part of the positional processing. Ex. In the sentence "The cat chased the mouse," there are several constituents, including the noun phrase "the cat" and the verb phrase "chased the mouse." (determiner) N 1 V [past] (determiner) N 2 ( D ETERMINER) {c at} [singular; definite] {h unt} [past] ( D ETERMINER) {mou se} [singular; definite]

Answer 265

Processes by which the sound shapes of words are specified. Component of the formulation process (of Speech Production)

Answer 266

Final stage of the speech production process, when the sounds of words are pronounced, as the speaker implements a phonetic plan.

Answer 267

Increased likelihood of using a particular sentence structure as a result of recent exposure to the same or similar structure.

Answer 268

Notion that difficulty in production and/or comprehension is related to how different the surface structure of a sentence is from its deep structure, according to the rules of transformational (derivational) grammar.

Answer 269

An ambiguity that is not resolved within the sentence. Ex. "Visiting relatives can be boring." (Is it the act of visiting relatives that can be boring, or are the relatives themselves boring?)

Answer 270

Ambiguity where the meaning is made clear later in the same utterance or sentence. Ex. "The chef who cooked the dinner was praised."

Answer 271

Clause that conveys the main idea of a sentence. Ex. "She went to the store because she needed to buy groceries." The Main Clause: "She went to the store"

Answer 272

Clause that is dependent on or modifies an element of a main clause. "She went to the store because she needed to buy groceries." The Subordinate Clause: "because she needed to boy groceries"

Answer 273

Consist of a main clause and a number of subordinate classes. Ex. "After she finished her homework, Sarah went to the store because she needed to buy groceries, but she forgot her wallet, so she had to go back home to get it before returning to the store to complete her shopping."

Answer 274

Ratio of subordinate clauses to total clauses; used as an indication of the syntactic complexity of an utterance or text. Ex. In the sentence "After she finished her homework, Sarah went to the store because she needed to buy groceries, but she forgot her wallet, so she had to go back home to get it before returning to the store to complete her shopping." the Subordination Index is 60%

Answer 275

Type of subordinate clause that provides additional information about a noun or pronoun in the main clause. They are commonly introduced by relative pronouns such as "who", "whom", "that", "which", etc. Ex. "I met a woman who lives next door." The Relative Clause: "who lives next door"

Answer 276

A phenomenon in syntax where a relative clause can be attached to different constituents within a sentence, resulting in different interpretations of the sentence's meaning. Ex. "I saw the man [with] the telescope" VS "I saw the man [who was] with the telescope"

Answer 277

Claim that the clause is the basic unit of analysis in language comprehension. A "chunking" process. Hypothesised that language chunking might proceed on the basis of sentence structure, (i.e. that sentences are chunked into units like clauses). Ex. Processing of this sentence is split into two clauses "[The teacher who taught the biggest class] [was given extra pay by his principal]."

Answer 278

Phenomenon where the click in a Click Location Task often "migrates", perceptually, to a clause boundary. Click Location Task: Hear a recording with a transcript and mark were an additional click/beep occur. Used as evidence for the Clausal Hypothesis. Ex. "The teacher who taught the biggest cla*CLICK*ss / was given extra pay by his principal.

Answer 279

Claim that clauses are important structural units, but that processing can take place within clauses and not just at clause boundaries.

Answer 280

In its strongest form, a claim that syntactic processing is carried out exclusively at the boundaries between clauses. Claimed in the Clausal Hypothesis.

Answer 281

Participants are told to listen for a word which may or may not occur in a sentence which they then hear. Their task is to press a response button as soon as they hear that word (if it is present). It includes different types of sentences: 1. Normal Prose 2. Anomalous Prose 3. Scrambled Prose 4. Cumulative The key results are that: 1. When the sentence has structure, a word within that sentence can be responded to more rapidly 2. This response facilitation increases as more of the sentence is heard 3. The availability of both syntactic and semantic meaning structure results in a faster decrease in response times than the availability of syntactic structure alone. This task shows support for Clausal Structuring (rather than Clausal Processing).

Answer 282

Refers to a linguistic structure in which the elements that make up a single syntactic unit are not adjacent to each other in the sentence. Instead, they are separated by intervening elements. Ex. "LOOK UP the word in a dictionary". or "LOOK the word UP in a dictionary"

Answer 283

Linguistic elements that explicitly signal or indicate certain grammatical or semantic features within a language. Refers to a word or phrase that helps to indicate the structure of a sentence or the relationship between different parts of a sentence. Ex. "The cat sat on the mat because it was warm.", the preposition "on" is an explicit marker showing the relationship between the verb "sat" and the noun "mat". Syntactic markers can include words like conjunctions, prepositions, and subordinating conjunctions, as well as punctuation marks like commas and semicolons.

Answer 284

Encompasses the melodic and rhythmic elements of speech that go beyond individual phonemes and words, contributing to the overall musicality and expressiveness of spoken language

Answer 285

Refers to the hierarchical organization of speech into units based on prosodic features such as pitch, stress, rhythm, and intonation. Larger units of speech are divided into smaller units based on prosodic boundaries. These boundaries are marked by changes in pitch, rhythm, or other prosodic features and help delineate the structure of the utterance.

Answer 286

Sentence which misleads the reader/listener by initially inducing a structural interpretation which turns out to be incorrect. Ex. "The old man the boats." Should be read as: "The old [people] man [handle] the boats." Ex. "The horse raced past the barn fell." Should be read as: "The horse [that was] raced past the barn fell."

Answer 287

A type of relative clause that has been shortened or simplified in form. In a reduced relative clause, certain elements such as the relative pronoun and auxiliary verbs are omitted, resulting in a more concise structure. A relative clause without the "who", "which" or "that" Ex. "The man replaced by Bert..." ("The man [who was] replaced by Bert..."

Answer 288

Involves breaking down a sentence into its constituent parts and representing them in a structured form, typically in the form of a parse tree or a syntactic structure. A method used in linguistics and psycholinguistics to study how people process and understand the structure of sentences. It focuses on analyzing how sentences are parsed, or broken down, into their constituent parts, such as words, phrases, and clauses, and how these parts are organized hierarchically according to the rules of syntax.

Answer 289

Part of The Syntactic Parsing Approach Refers to the idea that language production can be mechanistic and algorithmic, akin to the process of making sausages in a machine. In this metaphor, linguistic input (such as ideas, concepts, or intentions) is fed into the "sausage machine," which then processes this input according to predefined rules, algorithms, or templates. The machine churns out linguistic output in the form of sentences, paragraphs, or other linguistic units. It implies a certain level of automatism and predictability in language production, suggesting that the output generated by the machine may lack the nuanced creativity, flexibility, and contextual understanding typically associated with human language use. Works according to 2 principles: 1) Late Closure 2) Minimal Attachment

Answer 290

The Sausage Machine. Mechanism that analyses sentences according to their syntactic structure. It takes input in the form of text (usually sentences or phrases) and applies syntactic rules or algorithms to determine the relationships between words and phrases, as well as their hierarchical structure

Answer 291

Parser. The Sausage Machine Approach. It involves breaking down sentences into their component parts (such as words, phrases, and clauses) and determining how these parts are related to each other according to the rules of syntax.

Answer 292

The Sausage Machine. When possible, attach material into the clause or phrase currently being processed. A principle that suggests that when encountering a new word or phrase in a sentence, individuals tend to attach it to the current phrase being processed rather than starting a new phrase. In other words, they prefer to "close" the current phrase as late as possible

Answer 293

Attach incoming material into the phrase marker being constructed, using the fewest possible nodes consistent with the well-formedness rules of the language under consideration. When encountering a new word or phrase in a sentence, the parser tends to attach it to the current phrase being processed rather than creating a new phrase.

Answer 294

The study of speaker meaning and how more is communicated than is said

Answer 295

Communication depends on not only recognizing the structure and meaning of words in an utterance, but also recognizing what speakers mean by their utterances in a particular context.

Answer 296

Pragmatics. The situation, time or place in which words are used. Ex. The word "BANK" on a wall of a building → Is understood as a financial institution

Answer 297

Pragmatics. The set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence, also called co-text. Ex. If the word "bank" is used with words such as "steep" or "overgrown", we know what kind of bank we are talking about (not a financial institution)

Answer 298

The phenomenon of words or phrases within a sentence pointing to something outside the text itself, typically the context of the communication or the physical location of the speaker or listener. Words that can't be interpreted at all if we don't know the context. Ex. "here", "there", "now", "yesterday", "she", "him", "it", etc. We make distinctions between different Deixis a. Person Deixis b. Spatial Deixis c. Temporal Deixis d. Close to Speaker e. Not Close to Speaker

Answer 299

Refers to the relationship between language and the world it describes. An act by which a speaker/writer uses language to enable a listener/reader to identify someone or something. When we use language, we often refer to entities, actions, events, or concepts in the world around us. Reference is the linguistic mechanism by which we point to or denote these entities or ideas. To perform an act of reference, we can use proper nouns ("Chomsky", "Jennifer", "Whiskas"), other nouns in phrases ("a writer", "my friend", "the cat") or pronouns ("he", "she", "it") 1. Interference 2. Presupposition 3. Anaphora

Answer 300

Pragmatics. Reference. Additional information used by a listener/reader to create a connection between what is said and what must be meant. Ex. When someone says "Jennifer is wearing Calvin Klein" you avoid imagining someone called Calvin draped over poor Jennifer and recognize that they are talking about her clothing.

Answer 301

Pragmatics. Use of pronouns ("it") and noun phrases with the ("the puppy") to refer back to something already mentioned. The first mention is called the Antecedent. Can be defined as subsequent reference to an already introduced entity

Answer 302

Pragmatics. Anaphora. The first mention of someone or something later referred to via anaphora

Answer 303

Point forward. Similar to anaphora, but reversing the antecedent–anaphora relationship, often beginning with a pronoun and a descriptive noun phrase later. Ex. "When HE (anaphoric reference) arrived, JOHN looked shaken

Answer 304

Interference. Ex. "We found a house to rent, but the kitchen was very small" We have to make the interference like "if X is a house, then X has a kitchen" in order to interpret the connection between antecedent "a house" and anaphoric expressions "the kitchen"

Answer 305

The antecedent doesn't have to be a noun, in some cases it can be a verb Ex. "The victim was shot twice, but the gun was never recovered" Here the interference is that any "shooting" event must involve a gun.

Answer 306

An assumption by a speaker/writer about what is true or already known by the listener/reader. Ex. "He, your brother is looking for you" Obvious presupposition that you have a brother

Answer 307

Short expressions (such as "You know", "I mean" or "Well"), that indicate the speaker’s attitude to the listener or the utterance. Ex. Speakers can use "you know" to indicate that knowledge is being treated as shared, and "I mean" to self-correct or to mark an attempt to clarify something.

Answer 308

Pragmatics. Politeness. A person’s public self-image as described in the study of politeness a. Negative b. Positive

Answer 309

Pragmatics. Showing awareness and consideration of another person’s public self-image

Answer 310

Saying something that represents a threat to another person’s self-image. Ex. If you use a direct command to get someone to do something ("Give me that paper!"), you are behaving as if you have more social power than the other person.

Answer 311

Saying something that reduces a possible threat to another person’s self-image. Ex. The indirect act associated with a question ("Could you pass me that paper?") removes the assumption of social power.

Answer 312

Pragmatics. Politeness. The need to be independent and free from imposition, in contrast to positive face Example: A Face-Saving Act that emphasizes a person's Negative Face → Will show concern about imposition Ex. "I'm sorry to bother you…", "I know you're busy, but…"

Answer 313

Pragmatics. Politeness. The need to be connected, to belong, to be a member of a group, in contrast to negative face. Example: A Face-Saving Act that emphasizes a person's Positive Face → Will show solidarity and draw attention to a common goal Ex. "The same thing happened to me…", "Let's do this together…"

Answer 314

it can be analyzed as different types of linguistics action, or Speech Acts.

Answer 315

Sentences that ask a question or seek information. Ex. "Did you eat the pizza?"

Answer 316

Sentences that are commands or requests. Ex. "Eat the pizza (please)!"

Answer 317

Sentences that make statements or assertions. Ex. "You ate the pizza."

Answer 318

An action in which the form used (e.g. interrogative) directly matches the function (e.g. question) performed by a speaker with an utterance, in contrast to an indirect speech act. The Illocutionary Force (Meaning) matches the Locutionary Act (Form). Ex. When we really/actually want to know the answer to "Is she wearing a wig?" (Yes/No), we use it as a question (the function of a Interrogative Sentence)

Answer 319

An action in which the form used (e.g. interrogative) does not directly match the function (e.g. request) performed by a speaker with an utterance, in contrast to a direct speech act. The Illocutionary Force (Meaning) does not match the Locutionary Act (Form). Ex. "Can you pass the salt?" where don't want to know Yes/No, we want you to physically pass the salt (which would be compatible with a Imperative Sentence)

Answer 320

The study of language beyond the sentence, in text and conversation

Answer 321

The ties and connections between words that exist within texts. Ex. "My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could. That car would be worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my college education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have the convertible." Use of words to maintain reference to the same people and things throughout. Terms that share a common element of meaning (such as "money" and "time"). Verb tenses changes throughout the text, past tense connects those events together and present tense connects those events together.

Answer 322

The connections that readers and listeners create in their minds to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of texts. "Everything fitting together well" People try to make sense of what they hear/read. Ex. "Women robs bank with sandwich" We try to understand this by bringing information from our experience to create a plausible situation.

Answer 323

In conversation, the unit of talk by one speaker, ended by the beginning of the next speaker’s unit of talk

Answer 324

In conversation, the end of a turn, usually marked by a pause at the end of a phrase or sentence. Ex. Asking a question, pausing at the end of a completed syntactic structure

Answer 325

The way in which each speaker takes a turn in conversation

Answer 326

A break in the flow of speech, using sounds such as "em" and "er"

Answer 327

At the beginning of new ideas. In unscripted speech, a lot of mental activity is spent on macroplanning (discourse and genre considerations for overall communicative goal) and microplanning (some semantic and syntactic considerations for a specific speech act in preparing the pre-verbal message) in the conceptualisation stage of scripted speech where greater mental energy can go to formulation

Answer 328

In conversation, an automatic sequence of a first part from one speaker and a second part from another speaker Ex. "How are you?" ~ "Fine, thanks." This is found in: · Greetings · Question-Answer (Q-A) sequences · Thanking · Leave-taking

Answer 329

In conversation, an adjacency pair that comes between the first and second parts of another pair. Example: You: "Do you want some milk?" (= Q1) Me: "Is it soy milk?" (= Q2) You: "Of course." (= A2) Me: "Okay, thanks." (= A1) This is often the case in "service encounters" We are not normally aware of most of these aspects of conversational structure. But we do seem to have an expectation that certain patterns of turn-taking will occur, known as the Co-Operative Principle ("Gricean Maxims")

Answer 330

An underlying assumption of conversation that you will “make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged” 1. The Quantity Maxim: The assumption in conversation that you will “make your contribution as informative as is required, but not more, or less, than is required” 2. The Quality Maxim: The assumption in conversation that you will “not say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack adequate evidence” 3. The Relation Maxim: The assumption in conversation that you will “be relevant” The Manner Maxim: The assumption in conversation that we will “be clear, brief and orderly” In simple terms, we expect our conversational partners to make * Succinct * Honest * Relevant * Clear contributions to the interaction, and to signal us in some way if these maxims are not being followed.

Answer 331

The Co-Operative Principle The assumption in conversation that you will “make your contribution as informative as is required, but not more, or less, than is required”

Answer 332

The Co-Operative Principle The assumption in conversation that you will “not say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack adequate evidence”

Answer 333

The Co-Operative Principle The assumption in conversation that you will “be relevant”

Answer 334

The Co-Operative Principle The assumption in conversation that we will “be clear, brief and orderly”

Answer 335

An expression (often a saying) that seems simply to repeat an element with no apparent meaning Ex. "Boys will be boys", "A sandwich is a sandwich"

Answer 336

In logical terms, this reply appears to have no communicative value since it states something obvious (a tautology). However, if the women is being co-operative and adhearing to the Quantity Maxim about being "as informative as is required" then we must assume that she is communicating something. → She has communicated that the sandwich is not worth talking about.

Answer 337

A word or phrase used to indicate that you are not really sure that what you are saying is sufficiently correct or complete Ex. "Sort of…", "Kind of…", "Correct me if I am wrong, but…", "think", "feel", "possible", "may" We can use Hedges to show that we are concerned about following the maxims while being co-operative speakers.

Answer 338

An additional meaning conveyed by a speaker adhering to the Co-operative Principle. This is when the speaker is implying something that is not said. Ex. C A R O L : Are you coming to the party tonight? L A R A : I’ve got an exam tomorrow. The answer depends on the assumption that Lara is being relevant (Relation) and informative (Quantity). Given that Lara’s original answer contains relevant information, Carol can work out that “exam tomorrow” involves “study tonight,” and “study tonight” precludes “party tonight.” Thus, Lara’s answer is not just a statement abouttomorrow’s activities, it contains an implicature (an additional conveyed meaning) concerning tonight’s activities.

Answer 339

Background knowledge. This must be shared by the conversational participants. Example: Carol: "Are you coming to the party tonight?" Lara: "I've got an exam tomorrow" · On the face of it: Lara's statement is not an answer to Carol's question - She doesn't say Yes or No · The answer seems to depend on the assumption that Lara is being: - Relevant (Relation) - Informative (Quantity) · This means that Carol can work out that: - "Exam tomorrow" involves "Study tonight" And that "study tonight" precludes "party tonight" A part of background knowledge is the concept of Schema and Scripts

Answer 340

A conventional knowledge structure in memory for specific things Ex. A supermarket = Food is displayed on shelves, arranged in aisles, etc. We have many schemas (or schemata) that are used in the interpretation of what we experience and what we hear or read about.

Answer 341

A script is essentially a dynamic schema. That is, instead of the set of typical fixed features in a schema, a script has a series of conventional actions that take place. A conventional knowledge structure in memory for the series of actions involved in events Ex. “Eating in a restaurant" Although a text doesn’t have this information, we would assume that - Suzy opened a door to get into the restaurant - That there were tables there - That she ate the sandwich Then she paid for it and so on.

Answer 342

This phenomenon means that we "build" interpretations of what we read by using more information than is presented in the words on the page. We actually create what the text is about, based on our expectations of what normally happens. To describe this phenomenon, researchers often use the concept of a “schema” or a “script.”

Answer 343

a. If the spoonerism would produce a sequence of real words → It would produce a spoonerism 20% of the time Ex. "Hot shirt" → "Shot hurt" (both are real words) b. If the spoonerism would not produce real words (nonsense words) → It would only produce a spoonerism 6% of the time Ex. "Hide shame" → "Shide hame" (nonsense words) c. If the spoonerism would produce taboo word pairs → It would only produce a spoonerism 4% of the time Ex. "Hit shed" → "Shit head" (Real words, but "taboo") This shows both the Real Word Bias and that the monitoring system exludes inappropriate language (as well as nonsense words)

Answer 344

Tendency for processes, such as slips of the tongue, to result in an outcome that is a real word rather than a nonword.

Answer 345

Yes. A. Connected to fake electrodes and told that they might receive mild electric shocks during the experiment → Presented with a potential spoonerism related to the notion of electric shocks Ex. "Shad back" → "Had shock" → More likely to produce errors that related to the electric shock situation. B. Met by an attractive and provocatively dressed female experimenter → Presented with a potential spoonerism related to the notion of glamorous or attractive women Ex. "Lood gegs" → "Good legs" → More likely to produce errors related to the notion of glamorous women.

Answer 346

When a speaker stops their own utterance which is or would be errorful. Followed by editing expression (optional) and then a repair.

Answer 347

Speaker’s own correction of an error in their speech. The repair is when the speaker actually makes good the damage of the error from the point of restart onwards

Answer 348

The moment when the speaker breaks off from their original utterance

Answer 349

States that speakers interrupt themselves immediately that they detect an error.

Answer 350

When a speaker discovers that something is wrong with what she plans to say but interrupts herself before the troublesome material is actually spoken.

Answer 351

The error and repair/revision are available for scrutiny.

Answer 352

Stage of repair of an error or revision of an inappropriateness after the point of interruption. Often involves an editing expression.

Answer 353

Sound, word or phrase ("uh" , "er" , "I mean") which the speaker uses to inform the listener that a mistake is about to be corrected.

Answer 354

Point in a repair at which the speaker starts again and speaks the replacement material.

Answer 355

In essence says that the error (or the complete sentence constituent of which it would have been part) must be able to form a grammatically complete coordinated structure (Ex. with "and") when joined with the repair.

Answer 356

Using increased emphasis or stress to highlight information in the replacement utterance of a repair. Often of the Repair Word. - More likely when there is a high degree of contrast between the error and repair terms.

Answer 357

Two words with the same spelling and largely the same pronunciation, but a contrasting stress pattern. Ex. PROject (noun) vs. proJECT (verb)

Answer 358

Repair more likely if the misplacement of stress results in a difference in the vowels of the word. Ex. Stress Pairs Ex. PROject (noun) vs. proJECT (verb)

Answer 359

Speaker’s own correction of a mistake in speech where the original utterance was inappropriate or incomplete rather than wrong.

Answer 360

The repair is a response to the realization that the output is not the word the speaker intended (or indeed not a word at all)

Answer 361

A measure of the skin’s ability to conduct electricity. For some people, changes in this response measure are highly sensitive to emotional changes, which can in turn be affected by the language they are processing.

Answer 362

The choice of editing term may convey information about the nature of the repair. "uh", "er" = Speaker is retrieving something temporarily forgotten "I saw . . uh . . twelve people at the party" "that is" = Speaker wants to specify a referent, especially one previously signalled only by a pronoun "He hit Mary . . that is . . Bill did" "(or) rather" = Speaker wants to get closer to the intended meaning "I am trying to lease, or rather, sublease my apartment" "I mean" = Speaker wants to correct an all- out mistake

Answer 363

Speakers repair their errors in a structured way. 1. Repeating: Repeating a word that came before the error 2. Grammatical Category: Using a word from the same grammatical category

Answer 364

Information which has just been introduced into the discourse for the first time. It is often accented.

Answer 365

Of a syllable or word that is prominent by virtue of being spoken more clearly and/or more strongly. Common for new information.

Answer 366

Information that has already been established as background information.

Answer 367

Refers to a syntactic relationship between a "filler" (such as a wh-word like "who" or "what") and a "gap" (an empty position within a sentence) that it relates to. Fillers: The fronted elements Gaps/Traces: The locations the fillers have been moved from. Often Empty Categories. Ex “[The woman [that I love]s′]NP is moving to Argentina.” The verb “love” seems to miss an object, which it is required to have. However, it is grammatical since we can understand that the noun “woman” is the object of “love”. We can say that the modifying clause contains a “gap,” while the head noun is interpreted as the thing which fills this gap, making the sentence complete.

Answer 368

Refer to syntactic positions within a sentence that do not have overt phonological content. Ex. Whom(1) does Bill like (1)?

Answer 369

Notion that because of memory load, the process of linking a filler to a gap must be carried out as rapidly as possible.

Answer 370

In filler–gap dependencies, a location where a filler could be attached, but which is in fact not an appropriate point of attachment. Ex. "What did John buy (__) the paint with __?" Where (___) after "buy" is a pseudogap, as "what" refers to "with" ("with what")

Answer 371

Claim that if you have two fillers followed by two gaps, you should assign the most recent of the two fillers to the first gap, and the more distant to the second.

Answer 372

Strategy for determining where a filler has been moved from, which assumes that you allocate it to the first possible position from where it might have moved. The language processor immediately posits or hypothesizes the existence of a gap in the sentence structure upon encountering a filler A corollary of this strategy would have to be that if this first gap turns out to not in fact be a gap (but rather a pseudogap) then the next gap position will be considered, and so on.

Answer 373

Strategy for determining where a filler has been moved from, which assumes that the processor delays until it is absolutely forced to link the filler to a possible source position. This strategy involves the parser initially processing the sentence without assuming the existence of a gap. Instead, it waits until it encounters sufficient evidence or cues that explicitly require the insertion of a gap for the sentence to be grammatically coherent.

Answer 374

Expects gap postulation (theories) to follow lexical expectations. Verbs differ from one another in their expectations regarding transitivity. This can in part reflect the frequency with which they are used in different syntactic constructions. Ex. "read" occurs very frequently with a following object, but although "walk" can take an object it rarely does so. Using this information, the processor may take a gamble, when encountering "read" with no apparent object, that there is a gap after read with which the filler should be linked. With "walk" , it makes a different bet, that "walk" has no object.

Answer 375

One that requires a direct object to complete its meaning. It needs to transfer its action to something or someone—an object. They demand objects. Without an object to affect, the sentence that a transitive verb inhabits will not seem complete. Ex. "Donovan gave the gift to his sister" ("Donovan gave.")

Answer 376

Verb that does not require a direct object to complete its meaning. Ex. "Susan laughed."

Answer 377

When a word tends to be used in certain sentence structures in preference to others. Our experience-based knowledge of such preferences can affect processing of sentences involving that word.

Answer 378

Hypothesis that cognitive processes are divided up into separate systems. Argues that there are numerous very different kinds of mental abilities, each operating in its own way, and language is one of several such modules. Strong: 1. Informationally Encapsulated 2. Automaticity

Answer 379

Description for a self-contained processing module. Means that it operates independently and is not significantly influenced by information from other cognitive processes. This concept is often associated with modularity theories, which propose that the mind consists of specialized cognitive modules that perform specific tasks or processes. These modules are thought to operate autonomously and are relatively insulated from other cognitive processes.

Answer 380

Automaticity refers to the ability to perform tasks or processes with little to no conscious effort, awareness, or cognitive resources. Obligatory nature of processing carried out by components in, for example, a modular system. If the module receives some input, then that input must be processed by the module and an output generated. Cf. the apparent obligatory nature of word recognition, as reflected in the Stroop effect.

Answer 381

When participants find it difficult to ignore the meaning of a word when they are told to name the color in which the word is printed (e.g. RED printed in green). Reflects automaticity of processing. Shows Automaticity.

Answer 382

Non-Fluent Aphasia. Speech disorder caused by damage to Broca’s area of the brain. People with this condition use mainly simple content words, omitting function words; they have trouble with parsing and in making grammaticality judgements. Characterized by Agrammatic Speech Example: "I eggs and eat and drink coffee breakfast" Example: "My cheek … very annoyance … main is my shoulder … achin' all round here." Comprehension is typically much better than production.

Answer 383

Part of the brain which is located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere of the brain. It deals with grammatical processing, so people with damage to this part of the brain often have trouble with grammatical planning and parsing.

Answer 384

Fluent Aphasia. Speech disorder caused by damage to the brain, resulting in fluent but often nonsensical speech. A language disorder in which comprehension is typically slow while speech is fluent, but vague and missing content words. Ex. "I can’t talk all of the things I do, and part of the part I can go alright, but I can’t tell from the other people." Difficulty in finding the correct word, sometimes referred to as anomia, also happens in Wernicke’s aphasia. Comprehension is impacted.

Answer 385

Area of the brain, towards the rear of the left hemisphere. People with physical damage to this area can speak fluently but often make no sense.

Answer 386

Language processing involves dynamic interactions between multiple general cognitive systems and processes that are distributed across the brain. Language, memory, reasoning, etc. can all be seen as examples of a general and powerful capacity for forming concepts and manipulating information.

Answer 387

A language disorder in which it is difficult to find words, often associated with Wernicke’s aphasia Speech disorder, often as a result of brain damage, resulting in difficulty with finding words and naming things. Similair to Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) Phenomenon.

Answer 388

When patients can read and write and can speak quite normally, but are unable to understand words spoken to them, despite unimpaired hearing.

Answer 389

1. Sublexical Route: Amounts to an echoing back or shadowing of what the participants hears 2. Lexical Route: Used for repeating words, but without comprehension of those words 3. Semantic Route: Indicates repetition that includes understanding.

Answer 390

Amounts to an echoing back or shadowing of what the participants hears

Answer 391

Used for repeating words, but without comprehension of those words

Answer 392

Indicates repetition that includes understanding.

Answer 393

Language deficits with preserved cognitive abilities contrasted with cognitive deficits with preserved language abilities. a. Specific Language Impairment (SLI) b. Chatterbox Syndrome (Williams Syndrome)

Answer 394

Developmental disorder where a child talks fluently and grammatically but performs poorly on tests of general intelligence.

Answer 395

Developmentally early and often lasting impairment in language capabilities, generally coupled with normal performance on nonverbal tests of general intelligence.

Answer 396

A research method used in psycholinguistics and cognitive science to study language processing, particularly in the context of spoken language comprehension. In this paradigm, participants are presented with visual displays while simultaneously listening to spoken language stimuli. Their eye movements are tracked as they process the linguistic input, providing insights into the real-time processing of language. The point of interest is usually where in the visual world they direct their gaze as they hear and interpret the information in the instruction. Ex. "Put the apple on the towel in the box" and presented with different items (an apple, an apple placed on a towel, a towel, a box, a pencil, etc.)

Answer 397

Speakers generally recall 1. The beginning and end of word (bath tub effect) 2. The stress pattern 3. Mostly know the number of syllables in the word.

Answer 398

Uncommon words and names.

Answer 399

The study of the relationship between language and the brain

Answer 400

The Left Hemisphere.

Answer 401

This is an area that generally controls movements of the muscles (for moving hands, feet, arms etc.). The part of the motor cortex that is close to Broca's area controls the articulatory muscles of the face, jaw, tongue and larynx and hence the physical articulation of speech.

Answer 402

A bundle of nerve fibers connecting Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area in the left hemisphere of the brain

Answer 403

The belief that specific aspects of linguistic ability have specific locations in the brain . It has been used to suggest that the brain activity involved in hearing a word, understanding it, then saying it, would follow a definite pattern. 1. Word is heard and comprehended: Wernicke's Area 2. The signal is then transferred via the Arcuate Fasciculus to Broca's Area 3. Preparations are made to generate a spoken version of the word: Broca's Area 4. A signal is then sent to physically articulate the word: Motor Cortex

Answer 404

A speech error in which a sound or word is produced in the wrong place, as in "black bloxes" (instead of “black boxes”)

Answer 405

An impairment of language function due to localized brain damage that leads to difficulty in understanding and/or producing language The most common cause of aphasia is 1. A stroke (when a blood vessel in the brain is blocked or bursts) 2. Through traumatic head injuries from violence 3. An accident may have similar effects. Someone who is aphasic often has interrelated language disorders in that difficulties in understanding can lead to difficulties in production, for example.

Answer 406

The type of speech without grammatical markers, often associated with Broca’s aphasia. Example: "I eggs and eat and drink coffee breakfast"

Answer 407

A language disorder associated with damage to the arcuate fasciculus in which repeating words or phrases is difficult. Individuals suffering from this disorder sometimes mispronounce words, but typically do not have articulation problems. They are fluent, but may have disrupted rhythm because of pauses and hesitations. Comprehension of spoken words is normally good. Ex. Forms such as "vaysse" and "fosh" being reported as attempted repetitions of the words “base” and “wash.”

Answer 408

An experiment in which a listener hears two different sounds simultaneously, each through a different earphone Through one earphone comes the syllable "ga" or the word "dog" And through the other earphone at exactly the same time comes "da" or "cat" When asked to say what was hear, the subject more often correctly identifies the sound that came via the right ear (right-ear advantage)

Answer 409

The fact that humans typically hear speech sounds more readily via the right ear (because of lateralisation) Can been seen when doing a Dichotic Listening Task

Answer 410

Left Hemisphere: Language sounds Recognizing the smaller details of sounds, words and phrase structures in rapid sequence Right Hemisphere: Non-Language Sounds (ex. music, coughs, traffic noises, birds singing) Holistic processing, such as identifying more general structures in language and experience

Answer 411

Divided into a left side and a right side, with control of functions on one side or the other (used in describing the human brain)

Answer 412

In early childhood, since the human child does not emerge from the womb as a fully articulate language user. This is often referred to as The Critical Period

Answer 413

The time from birth to puberty during which normal first language acquisition can take place

Answer 414

He or she will find it almost impossible to learn language later on. Ex. Genie, did not know language until 13 years old. She developed some speaking ability and could understand a fairly large number of English words. However, she had a diminished capacity to develop grammatically complex speech. This supports the idea that part of the left hemisphere of the brain is open to accepting a language program during childhood and, if no program is provided, as in Genie’s case, then the facility is closed down. In Genie’s case, tests demonstrated that she had no left hemisphere language facility.

Answer 415

Not necessarily. Genie, who did not know language until 13 years old Tests appeared to indicate that Genie was using the right hemisphere of her brain for language functions. In dichotic listening tests, she showed a very strong left ear advantage for verbal as well as non-verbal signals. Such a finding, supported by other studies of right brain function, raises the possibility that our capacity for language is not limited to only one or two specific areas, but is based on more complex connections extending throughout the whole brain.

Answer 416

Yes. The fact that it generally occurs, without overt instruction, for all children, regardless of great differences in their circumstances provides strong support for the idea that there is an innate predisposition in the human infant to acquire language. We can think of this as a special capacity for language with which each newborn child is endowed. However, this innate capacity is not enough for acquiring language capacities.

Answer 417

1. Exposure to the language 2. Interaction with language 3. Cultural Tranismission 4. Physically capable of hearing

Answer 418

Yes. A child who does no hear or is not allowed to use language will learn no language Example: Genie Example: Boy with deaf parents who put on the TV with sound to him. He learnt ASL but did not develop the ability to speak or understand English

Answer 419

The language that an acquirer/learner is exposed to, in contrast to output.

Answer 420

"Baby talk", "motherese", "child-directed speech" The characteristically simplified speech style adopted by someone who spends a lot of time interacting with a young child incorporates a lot of forms associated with “baby talk.” These are either · Simplified words ("tummy", "nana") · Simple sentence structures · Repetition and paraphrasing · Alternative forms, with repeated simple sounds and syllables, for things in the child’s environment ("choo-choo", "poo-poo", "pee-pee", "wawa"). It is also characterized by the frequent use of questions, often using exaggerated intonation, extra loudness and a slower tempo with longer pauses. Built into the speech is a type of conversational structure that seems to assign an interactive role to the young child.

Answer 421

No. All normal children develop language at roughly the same time, along much the same schedule. We can say the same thing for sitting up, crawling, standing, walking, using the hands and many other physical activities We could think of the child as having the biological capacity to identify aspects of linguistic input at different stages during the early years of life.

Answer 422

Long before children begin to talk, they have been actively processing what they hear. Infants: We can identify what very young children are paying attention to by the way they increase or decrease “sucking behavior” in response to speech sounds or turn their heads in the direction of those sounds. 1 Month: An infant is capable of distinguishing between [ba] and [pa]. 1-3 Months: The child produces big smiles in response to a speaking face, and starts to create distinct vocalizations.

Answer 423

0-5 Months. The earliest use of speech-like sounds by an infant in the first few months 0-3 Months: Vowel-like sounds (high vowels) Ex. Similair to [i] and [u] 4 Months: The developing ability to bring the back of the tongue into regular contact with the back of the palate Allows the infant to create sounds similar to the velar consonants [k] and [ɡ] 5 Months: The child can hear the difference between the vowels [i] and [a] and discriminate between syllables like [ba] and [ɡa]

Answer 424

The stage after Cooing. 6-11 Months. The use of syllable sequences (ba-ba) and combinations (ma-ga) by young children in their first year. Early Babbling Stage: 6-8 Months. The child is sitting up and producing a number of different vowels and consonants, as well as combinations such as "ba-ba-ba" and "ga-ga-ga" Later Babbling Stage: 9-11 Months. Children begin to pull themselves into a standing position and are capable of using their vocalizations to express emotions and emphasis. This stage is characterized by more complex syllable combinations ("ma-da-ga-ba") and a lot of sound-play and attempted imitations. The child starts to learn the social role of speech.

Answer 425

After the Babbling Stage. 12-18 Months. The period in L1 acquisition when children can produce single terms for objects Ex. "milk", "cookie", "cat" Forms such as [ʌsæ] may occur in circumstances that suggest the child is producing a version of "What’s that" Characterized by the use of Holophrastic speech (meaning a single form functioning as a phrase or sentence) to describe an utterance that could be a word, a phrase, or a sentence.

Answer 426

After the One-Word Stage. 18-20 Months. A period beginning at around 18–20 months when children produce two terms together as an utterance Ex. "baby chair" The adult interpretation of such combinations is, of course, very much tied to the context of their utterance. The adults or, more often, older children behave as if communication is taking place.

Answer 427

If the child can produce 200 or 300 distinct “words,” he or she will be capable of understanding five times as many.

Answer 428

After the Two-Word Stage. 2-2 1/2 years old. Strings of words (lexical morphemes without inflectional morphemes) in phrases produced by two-year-old children. Ex. "Daddy go bye-bye", "Cat drink milk"

Answer 429

It is often assumed they are taught or learn by correction, but this is not entirely true. Most children learn by word-play. This can either in interaction with others or in word play, alone. The children actively constructing, from what is said to them and around them, possible ways of using the language. Ex. Two-year-old lying in bed alone playing with words and phrases. "I go dis way … way bay … baby do dis bib … all bib … bib … dere."

Answer 430

After Telegraphic Speech. Two and a half years old. Starts to incorporate inflectional and functional morphemes. This is often accompanied by a process of overgeneralization.

Answer 431

In L1 acquisition, using an inflectional morpheme on more words than is usual in the language Ex. "two foots"

Answer 432

1. Stage 1 occurs between 18 and 26 months 2. Stage 2 between 22 and 30 months 3. Stage 3 between 24 and 40 months.

Answer 433

1. Stage 1: Between 18 and 26 months a. Simply add a "wh"-form ("Where") to the beginning of the expression Ex. "Where kitty?" b. Utter the expression with a rise in intonation toward the end Ex. "Sit chair?" 2. Stage 2: Between 22 and 30 months i. The rising intonation strategy continues to be used Ex. "You want eat?" ii. More complex expressions can be formed iii. More "wh"-forms, such as "what" and "why" come into use Ex. "Why you smiling?" 3. Stage 3: Between 24 and 40 months i. The change in position of the auxiliary verb in English questions (called inversion) becomes evident in the child's speech Ex. "I can have…" → "Can I have…?" - This doesn't automatically spread to all "wh"-question types - Some children beginning school may still prefer to form "wh"-questions (especially with negatives) without the type of structure found in adult speech. Ex. "Why kitty can't do it?" (instead of "why can't kitty do it?") ii. Stage 3 questions are generally quite close to the adult model. - Apart from these problems with "wh"-questions and continuing trouble with the morphology of verbs Ex. "Did I caught it?" (instead of "Did I catch it?")

Answer 434

Stage 1: 18-26 months a. Simple strategy of putting "no" and "not" in the beginning Can be attached to both nouns and verbs Stage 2: 22-30 months a. Additional negatives "don't" and "can't" appear Using "don't" as a single unit b. Begin to use "no" and "not" in front of the verb (rather than at the beginning of an utterance) Stage 3: 24-40 months a. Other auxiliary forms such as "didn't" and "won't" Typical Stage 1 forms disappear A very late acquisition is the negative form "isn’t" Stage 2 forms (with "not" instead of "isn't") is continued to be used for quite a long time

Answer 435

In L1 acquisition, using a word to refer to more objects than is usual in the language a) Shape b) Sound c) Size d) Movement e) Texture Ex. "ball" used to refer to the moon Ex. A "tick-tock" is initially used for a watch, but is also be used for a bathroom scale with a round dial.

Answer 436

The semantic development in a child’s use of words is usually a process of overextension initially Followed by a gradual process of narrowing down the application of each term as more words are learned.

Answer 437

It isn’t necessarily used in speech comprehension. Example: One two-year-old used "apple", in speaking, to refer to a number of other round objects like a tomato and a ball But the child had no difficulty picking out the apple, when asked, from a set of round objects including a ball and a tomato.

Answer 438

The child will almost always use the “middle” level term in a hyponymous set Ex. Animal-dog-terrier (will use "dog") It would seem more logical to learn the most general term ("animal") This may be connected to a similar tendency in adults, when talking to young children, to refer to "flowers" (not the more general "plants", or the more specific "tulips").

Answer 439

It is acquired fairly late in development. Some of these relations are more difficult. Ex. "More/Less", "Before/After", "Buy/Sell" Example: A large number of kindergarten children pointed to the same heavily laden apple tree when asked "Which tree has more apples?" and also when asked "Which tree has less apples?".

Answer 440

By the age of five.

Answer 441

Primarily, we can identify Non-Gradeable Antonyms. Using the "negative test" we can see that the negative of one member of a non-gradable pair does imply the other member. Ex. "My grandparents are not alive" does indeed mean "My grandparents are dead" For, Gradeable Antonyms, the negative of one member of a gradable pair does not necessarily imply the other. Ex. "My car is not old" does not have to mean "My car is new" For, Reversives, we usually avoid describing one member of an antonymous pair as the negative of the other. Ex. "Undress" can be treated as the opposite of "dress", but it does not mean "no dress", it actually means "do the reverse of dress".

Answer 442

A type of Speech Act These are utterances or sentences that are used to describe or state facts about the world. Constatives aim to convey information that can be evaluated as true or false based on the correspondence between the statement and reality. Ex. "The cat is on the mat"

Answer 443

A type of Speech Act In contrast to constatives, performatives are utterances that perform an action rather than merely describe a state of affairs. When someone makes a performative utterance, they are not merely stating something about the world; rather, they are performing an action through the act of speaking. Ex. "I promise to be there"

Answer 444

Speech Act This refers to the actual utterance or production of words and sentences with a particular meaning. Ex. "I promise to attend your graduation ceremony." The locutionary act in this sentence is the production of meaningful words with grammatical structure and semantic content. It's simply the act of uttering the sentence itself

Answer 445

Speech Act This refers to the intended meaning or purpose behind the utterance. It's what the speaker aims to achieve by saying something. Ex. making a request, giving advice, asking a question, or making a promise. Ex. "I promise to attend your graduation ceremony." The illocutionary act here is making a promise. This act expresses the speaker's intention and commitment

Answer 446

Speech Act This refers to the effect or impact that the utterance has on the listener or recipient. It's the response or behavior that the speaker intends to elicit from the listener. In this case, it may reassure the listener and make them feel valued or appreciated, knowing that the speaker has promised to attend their important event. It can also create a sense of expectation or anticipation regarding the speaker's presence at the Speech Actceremon

Answer 447

When a question is asked and the asker is without the knowledge requested. A secondary knower is someone who gains knowledge indirectly, often through the testimony or information provided by others, rather than through direct personal experience or observation. Ex. If you learn about historical events from a history book or scientific facts from a teacher, you are acting as a secondary knower because you are acquiring knowledge from sources external to yourself

Answer 448

When a question is asked because the asker wants to check the listener's understanding of something known to the asker.

Answer 449

Classification for Illocutionary Force, Speech act Aim to represent a state of affairs or convey information about the world. The speaker commits to the truth of the expressed proposition Ex. Asserting, Concluding Ex. "The meeting starts at 9:00 AM tomorrow."

Answer 450

Classification for Illocutionary Force, Speech act. Aim to get the listener to do something. They include requests, commands, orders, invitations, and suggestions. You can't answer "That's not true" to them. Ex. Requesting, Questioning Ex. "Could you help me with this assignment?"

Answer 451

Classification for Illocutionary Force, Speech act. Commit the speaker to a future course of action. Involve commitments or promises made by the speaker Ex. Promising, Threatening Ex. "I swear I won't tell anyone about this."

Answer 452

Classification for Illocutionary Force, Speech act. Express a psychological state. Expresses the speaker's attitudes, feelings, or psychological states. Ex. Thanking, Apologising Ex. "Congratulations on your promotion!"

Answer 453

Classification for Illocutionary Force, Speech act. Affect an institutional state-of-affairs. Bring about a change in the external world simply by being uttered. Ex. Firing from employment, declaring a war Ex. "I now pronounce you husband and wife."

Answer 454

Refers to the way in which speakers can express attitudes or possibilities regarding the truth or likelihood of propositions. The means for the speaker to express their commitment to what they are saying, in terms of its probability or the speaker's obligation. Refers to the manner in which information is conveyed regarding the speaker's attitude, belief, or commitment to the truth of a proposition. · Possibility · Necessity · Probability · Obligation · Permission · Ability. · Willingness Ex. "Might", "Likely", "Definitely", "Have to", "Must not", "Ought to" 1. Epistemic 2. Deontic

Answer 455

Non-Linguistic. Epistemic modality pertains to the speaker's assessment of the truth value or certainty of a proposition. It reflects the speaker's knowledge, belief, or opinion regarding the likelihood of an event or state of affairs. Possibility, Probability, Certainty, Doubt Ex. "He must be tired" Ex. "We could have snow again tomorrow" We can rephrase these sentences with "I predict that..."

Answer 456

Linguistic. Deontic modality relates to the speaker's assessment of necessity, obligation, permission, or permission with respect to actions or events. It reflects the speaker's attitudes or beliefs about what should, must, may, or must not happen according to norms, rules, or social conventions. Ex. "I must leave now" Ex. "Could you meet me in town?" We can rephrase these sentences using "willing", "able", "permission" or "obliged"

Answer 457

Studies of speech errors show that word exchanges are highly likely to involve two words that have the same grammatical category but which appear in different syntactic phrases.

Answer 458

Aims to describe the rules and structures underlying the generation of sentences in human language. Transformational grammar is part of the broader field of generative grammar. Ex. Posits that each sentence has both a deep structure and a surface structure. Ex. Phrase Structure Rules (ex. posits that each sentence has both a deep structure and a surface structure.)

Answer 459

During language production, the stage of processing where we select words to express our thoughts. Put our thoughts into words

Answer 460

Content words. a. The "closed" set of function words is much more limited than the "open" set of content words. The finding of more pausing before content words might therefore reflect some additional time needed to select the appropriate word from a larger set of possibilities. b. Function words sit in a separate part of the mental lexicon with faster access c. Function words become available at a different stage of the production process, when the grammatical frame is constructed

Answer 461

Likelihood of what the next word in a sentence will be, given the words in the sentence to that point. Ex. The next word in "A stitch in time saves ____" is far more predictable (has a higher transitional probability) than the next word in "Please pass me that ____"

Answer 462

Technique for determining the predictability of words in context, by presenting an incomplete sentence to respondents who have to make guesses as to the next word, within a specified time limit

Answer 463

Experimental task where words are deleted from a sentence and participants are asked to provide the missing word(s). From this we can get transitional probability

Answer 464

Antonyms: Words that are some kind of opposite of one another.

Answer 465

Synonyms (or near-synonyms): Words that have very similair meanings

Answer 466

Also known as a lexical field or semantic domain Refers to a set of words related by meaning and used within a particular context or conceptual framework. These words share a common semantic theme or topic, and their meanings are interconnected within that specific domain. Ex. Within the semantic field of "colors," words like red, blue, green, and yellow are related by their shared attribute of color. The concept of semantic fieldsemantic field allows us to account for words that share a meaning relation which is less obvious than ‘=’, etc. relationships

Answer 467

Rests upon the thesis that the sense of every lexeme can be analysed in terms of a set of more general sense components (or semantic features). Ex. [+female][+adult][+human] = Female

Answer 468

List of the words produced when a target word is presented to participants and they are asked to write down the first word that occurs to them. The membership of the list provides information about the possible connections between words in the mental lexicon. Ex. "Bread" might have as associates "butter", "water", "loaf", etc.

Answer 469

Words from the same grammatical category. Ex. "Notice there are a number of strings we can associate with these. . . uh, structures we can associate with these strings" with Ex. "Seymour sliced the knife with a salami" Indicates that when words are selected for production, their grammatical category information is available, and words of the appropriate category are inserted into the available slots in the sentence frame.

Answer 470

1. Various types of opposites (antonyms) Ex. "husband" and "wife", "high" and "low" 2. Collocational links between words Ex. "hammer" and "nail" - These links are stronger in a left-to-right direction ("bread" produces a greater proportion of "butter" responses than vice versa")

Answer 471

1. Sound errors tend to come from syllables that are either a. both stressed or b. both unstressed 2. There is often good recall of stress position during TOT experience.

Answer 472

1. Onset consonants exchange with other onset consonants (Spoonerism) 2. Peaks exchange with other peaks 3. Coda consonants swap with other coda consonants

Answer 473

Speech error where a morpheme (usually an affix) appears in the wrong place

Answer 474

Whether a letter/phoneme string is a real word or a nonsense form.

Answer 475

"Hot shirt" ➡ "Shot hurt" The initial consonant sounds must be phonetically quite similair. The key condition for SIIP is when the last pair has a different order of the initial consonants from the sequence that participants have got used to. Thus resulting in a spoonerism for that word pair.

Answer 476

Semantic Roles. Associated with someone or something that undergoes an action or is affected by it. Ex. In the sentence "John kicked the ball," "the ball" is the patient because it undergoes the action of being kicked by John. "What happened to the [patient]"

Answer 477

Two morphemes. It is an irregular plural in English and consists of "man" + "[plural marker]".

Answer 478

Refers to a category of words that is relatively stable and does not easily accept new members. Adjectives, nouns, pronouns, conjunctions, determiners and prepositions

Answer 479

Refers to a category of words that is open to the addition of new members, and it's typically more flexible and subject to change. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs

Answer 480

Phenomenon which occurs in speech errors when affixes stay in their correct place in the utterance when stems of words are exchanged. Ex. "I went to get a cheque cashED" ➡ "I went to get a cash chequED"

Answer 481

Speech errors where a morpheme (usually an affix) appears in the wrong place. Ex. "It all addS up" ➡ "It all add upS"

Answer 482

"The man who was running Stockholm Marathon" The lexical verb is "fell over". We know that the logical form needs to be "SOMEONE fell over". The complete noun phrase includes the relative clause ("who was running...") Tests: 1. Answer to the question "Who fell over?" ("The man who was running Stockholm Marathon") 2. "The man who was running Stockholm Marathon" must be a complete phrase because it cannot be interrupted with another phrase (ex. "The man FELL OVER who was running Stockholm Marathon")

Answer 483

S ➡️ NP VP Ex. ”The athlete (NP) ran Göteborgsvarvet (VP)”

Answer 484

NP ➡️ {Art (Adj) N, Pro, PN Ex. “The (tired) athlete”, “he”, “Hannah”

Answer 485

VP ➡️ V {NP (PP) (Adv), CP} Ex. “Read a book (from the shelf) (slowly), think that it is a good idea” Ex. “…sings (VP ➡️ V)

Answer 486

Prepositional Phrase PP ➡️ P NP Ex. “In the corner”

Answer 487

Complementary Phrase CP ➡️ C S C = Complementizer Ex. “…that I can run the half marathon under one hour thirty minutes”

Answer 488

Also known as a main verb. A verb that carries the primary meaning in a clause or a sentence. Lexical verbs convey the main action or state of the subject in a sentence. Lexical verbs typically express action, state, or other predicate meaning. In contrast, auxiliary verbs express grammatical meaning. The verb phrase of a sentence is generally headed by a lexical verb. Ex.”go” is the lexical verb in “I need to go now” while “need” is the auxiliary verb.

Answer 489

Also known as a helping verb. Works together with a main verb to form a verb phrase, expressing tense, mood, aspect, voice, or emphasis. Ex. In the sentence "She is singing," "is" is an auxiliary verb indicating the present progressive tense, while "singing" is the main verb.

Answer 490

If the specific one comes first and the general one comes second. Specici - Generic. Ex. "Eyewitness said that A CAR has been seen close to the accident site. By the time police arrived, THE VEHICLE had gone."

Answer 491

Yes. Ex. "UNhappy", "REconsider"

Answer 492

As suffixes. Ex. "CatS", "WalkED"

Answer 493

Mantain. Ex. "Walk" → "Walked" (verbs)

Answer 494

Change. Ex. "Teach" (verb) → "Teacher" (noun)

Answer 495

1. Meaning Ex. Nouns: Refer to things, people, places, animals, abstract concepts Ex. Verbs: Express actions, processes/status, both outer and inner body 2. Structural Properties Ex. Nouns: Can be quantified, can possess Ex. Nouns: Morphological Shape Ex. Verbs: Can indicate location in time (tense), can indicate whether the action is complete or not Ex. Verbs: Morphological Shape 3. Grammatical Function Ex. Noun: Filler in "a(n)/the___" Ex. Verb: Filler in "s/he ___ it

Answer 496

A series of words in a text have a relationship

Answer 497

Mutually-Defining. Each part of the tie has meaning on its own without the other part of the tie. Needs two Lexical Words. Repetition, Sense Relations (Synonymy, Antonymy, Hyponymy, Meronymy), Semantic Field Ex. "...was quite MESSY...on the board CLEARLY"

Answer 498

Dependency Relationship: One part of the tie relies entirely on the other part of the tie for its meaning. Containts at least one Grammatical Word. Lexical word + Grammatical word Grammatical word + Lexical word Grammatical word + Grammatical word Reference, Substitution, Ellipsis, Conjunctions Ex. "MARY went...SHE...bought" (Lexical word + Grammatical Word)

Answer 499

A word, having no semantic interpretation of its own refers to some other thing (ex. a second word) which is required for its interpretation. Pronouns, demonstratives, possesives, the definite article. Ex. "he"/"she"

Answer 500

As reference (i.e. two elements are related by a "tie" with one being dependent on the other) but substitution is the replacement of one item for another different one, often for the purposed of economy of labor, linguistically. Nominal, verbal, clausal Ex. "I can't wear my new Converse trainers out! They'll get knackered. I'll wear my old ones" (ones being cohesive with the new converse, meaning they have another pair of older Converse)

Answer 501

As substitution, but where the replacement is not a pro-form but instead an entire omission Ex. "John likes coffee; Mary, tea". In this sentence, the word "likes" is omitted from the second clause but understood from the context of the first clause. This is an example of verb ellipsis

Answer 502

Explicit markers of links between words, phrases or clauses - of several different semantic types (additive, adversative, clausal and temporal) Ex. "John went to the shops and [John/he] bought a coffee" (you don't have to say John/he again)

Answer 503

External to the text. Situational. Pointing to something outside the text. The meaning of a word or phrase is dependent on the context outside of the linguistic text itself. Ex. "Look at that!" (while pointing at a specific object) In this example, the reference "that" is exophoric because its meaning depends on the shared context of the speaker and the listener, specifically the object being pointed at Exophoric reference falls under the broader umbrella of deixis, particularly spatial deixis, as it involves referring to entities, events, or concepts that are located in the shared physical or situational context.

Answer 504

Internal to the text. The meaning of a word or phrase is self-contained within the linguistic text itself. Anaphoric (point backwards). Cataphoric (point forwards). Ex. "John went to the store. He bought some groceries." In this example, "He" refers back to "John," and the reference is endophoric because the meaning is contained within the same text

Answer 505

Point backwards. Anaphoric reference is a specific type of endophoric reference where a word or phrase refers back to an earlier word or phrase in the same text. The word or phrase that is referred to is called the antecedent. Anaphoric references are commonly used in discourse to avoid repetition and maintain coherence by linking related elements within a text. Ex. "Mary went to the market. She bought some fruits." In this example, "She" refers back to "Mary," serving as an anaphoric reference. The antecedent ("Mary") is mentioned earlier in the text.

Answer 506

The Possible Word Constraint (PWC).

Answer 507

Sentence processing strategy that argues that words or phrases are attached locally to the closest appropriate structure. Similair to Late Closure. Found across all languages. More fundamental. Contrast Predicate Proximity. Ex. "who had the accident "would be taken to modify "the colonel" in: "The journalist interviewed the daughter of the colonel who had the accident."

Answer 508

Sentence processing strategy that results in the attachment of a noun-phrase modifier to the noun phrase that is closest to the verb in the main clause. Cost of violation varies across languages. Contrast Recency Principle. Ex. "who had the accident" would be taken to modify "the daughter" in: "The journalist interviewed the daughter of the colonel who had the accident."

Answer 509

Explanation for some garden path sentences that argues that they are difficult because they make unsupported assumptions about entities that have been introduced to the discourse, and not because of any syntactic difficulty. Ex. The classic garden path sentence "The horse raced past the barn fell" is argued to be difficult because the definite noun-phrase "The horse" presupposes a set of horses, from which one now is being singled out

Answer 510

Processing component that carries out semantic analysis of a sentence. In the sausage machine approach to sentence processing this only influences parsing after the initial syntactic analysis

Answer 511

When we set out to provide an analysis of the syntax of a language, we try to adhere to the “all and only” criterion. This means that our analysis must account for all the grammatically correct phrases and sentences and only those grammatically correct phrases and sentences in whatever language we are analyzing. In other words, if we write rules for the creation of well-formed structures, we have to check that those rules, when applied logically, won’t also lead to ill-formed structures.

Answer 512

Test for identifying a presupposition. And underlying presupposition remains true despite the fact that the sentence remains true despite the fact that the two sentences have opposite meaning. Ex. "My car is a wreck" VS "My car is not a wreck" → "I have a car"