Thought

Question 1

schema

Answer 1

• a plan, outline, or model”.

- a pattern of thought that organizes categories of information and relationships among them

Question 2

prototype

Answer 2

refers to what is perceived to be a complete image of something with all expected qualities and characteristics present

Question 3

Deductive reasoning

Answer 3

• Deductive reasoning is a form of reasoning where two or more facts or assumptions are applied to a specific event.
• e.g concluding that the sparrow lays eggs, based on knowing that all birds lay eggs, and that sparrows are a form of bird.

Question 4

Inductive reason

Answer 4

-inductive reasoning moves from specific instances into a generalized conclusion

Question 5

Descartes

Answer 5

“I think therefore

I am.” This comes, of course, from Descartes’ Discourse on the Method (1637)

Question 6

Availabilty heuristic

Answer 6

• the general tendency to make judgements and decisions on the basis of information that is available in memory is known as the availability
  heuristic
  -(Chater & Oaksford, 1999; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974)

Question 7

heuristic

Answer 7

• heuristics are simple, efficient rules which people often use to form judgments and make decisions.
• They are mental shortcuts that usually involve focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others.

Question 8

Cognitive errors

Answer 8

The reliance on heuristics has long been thought to be a source of cognitive errors (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973, 1974)

Question 9

Satisficing

Answer 9

-most people arrive at reasonable conclusions and make good decisions despite cognitive errors and bias. -Herbert Simon

Question 10

Gestalt laws of grouping.

Answer 10

These are perceptual laws that all centre on the idea that humans are biased to perceive whole objects, rather than parts.

Question 11

Productive thinking

Answer 11

• productive thinking is solving a problem with an insight

- Wertheimer, 1959

Question 12

Insight problems

Answer 12

-are bursts of ideas, clarity, or correct solutions that often seem to arrive suddenly in the mind.

Question 13

Reproductive thinking

Answer 13

reproductive thinking in problem-solving refers to problem-solving by remembered examples and remembered rules

Question 14

Dual process account or dual systems theory.

Answer 14

-assumes that there are two cognitive and neuropsychological systems that underlie the thinking process.
-Evans (2003, 2008) : System
1 and System 2, or holistic and analytic (Evans, 2003, 2008; Evans & Stanovich, 2013; Nisbett & Miyamoto,
2005; Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001; Norman & Brooks, 1997; Sloman, 1996).

Question 15

System 1 in dual systems theory

Answer 15

System 1 are a cluster of structures and functions that may operate with relative autonomy, and the functions and behaviours ascribed need not interact with other systems

Question 16

System 2 in dual systems theory

Answer 16

-the decision-making process is one
that requires a slower, more deliberative approach, a consideration of many outcomes and scenarios, the careful and explicit weighing of evidence, and a conscious decision.

Question 17

Algorithm

Answer 17

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that will always produce a correct solution.
While an algorithm guarantees an accurate answer, it is not always the best approach to problem-solving.
This strategy is not practical for many situations because it can be so time-consuming.

Question 18

Heuristics

Answer 18

A heuristic is a mental rule-of-thumb strategy that may or may not work in certain situations.

• do not always guarantee a correct solution.
• allow people to simplify complex problems and reduce the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set.

Question 19

Trial and error

Answer 19

• involves trying a number of different solutions and ruling out those that do not work.
• This approach can be a good option if you have a very limited number of options available.

Question 20

Insight

Answer 20

In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight.

• you mayrealize that the problem is actually similar to something that you have dealt with in the past
• in most cases, the underlying mental processes that lead to insight happen outside of awareness.

Question 21

Functional fixedness

Answer 21

This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their customary manner.
- stops you seeing different options that might be available to find a solution.

Question 22

Irrelevant or misleading information

Answer 22

When you are trying to solve a problem, it is important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty solutions. When a problem is very complex, the easier it becomes to focus on misleading or irrelevant information

Question 23

Assumptions

Answer 23

Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people often make assumptions about the constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions.

Question 24

Mental set

Answer 24

• the tendency people have to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas.
• A mental set can often work as a heuristic, making it a useful problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it more difficult to find effective solutions.