thinking- exam2 Flashcards
well defined vs ill defined problems
- Well-defined problems: Clear starting conditions, goal states, and methods for achieving the goal (e.g., geometry proofs).
- Ill-defined problems: Vague or incomplete aspects (e.g., finding the perfect mate, writing a great book).
- Ill-defined problems require creativity and often restructuring for solutions.
problem solving methods
Algorithms: Step-by-step methods guaranteed to solve problems but can be time-consuming.
Heuristics: Mental shortcuts (e.g., trial and error, hill climbing, means-end analysis) that are quicker but don’t guarantee correct answers.
Working backward: Transforming the goal state to resemble the initial state, useful when there are many paths.
algorithms vs. heuristics
Algorithms: A series of specified steps (e.g., solving a math problem), guaranteed to reach the correct solution but can be laborious.
Heuristics: Quick problem-solving strategies that aren’t guaranteed to be correct (e.g., trial and error, difference reduction, hill climbing).
Working backward: Effective when there are too many paths from the starting point, so transforming the goal state helps.
importance of problem representation
-Representation: The way a problem is framed or structured can significantly impact the success of solving it.
Restructuring the problem (changing its representation) often leads to solutions (e.g., monk problem with two monks).
Correct representation simplifies problem-solving; incorrect representation complicates it.
solving problems by analogy
Solving problems by finding an analogous problem from memory with a similar structure.
If the previous problem can be solved, the new problem may be too (e.g., isomorphic problems).
People often miss deep structural similarities, focusing instead on superficial differences.
mental set
Mental set: Tendency to stick to familiar problem-solving methods that worked before, even when they aren’t helpful for new problems.
Luchin’s water jar problem shows how previous success can create a fixed approach that may hinder finding better solutions.
Mental set can lead to rigidity, preventing creative solutions.
functional fixedness
Functional fixedness: Difficulty in seeing objects beyond their usual functions (e.g., seeing a box only as a container, not a platform in Duncker’s candle problem (how can you use these items to support a candle on the wall?).
Overcoming fixation improves problem-solving by enabling more flexible thinking.
Initial problem states influence the types of solutions people consider (e.g., tacks inside vs. outside the box).
reasoning heuristics and biases
Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of something based on its resemblance to a stereotype (ignoring base rates), e.g., assuming someone is schizophrenic based on behavior.
Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., overestimating the frequency of plane crashes due to media coverage).
Framing Effect: Different presentations of the same information lead to different decisions (e.g., glass half full vs. half empty).
overconfidence and anchoring
Overconfidence Effect: People overestimate their accuracy or ability to predict outcomes (e.g., students predicting events incorrectly in Dunn and Story’s study).
Anchoring: Relying heavily on the initial information (or “anchor”) when making estimates (e.g., how far NY is from SF—answer influenced by the first number provided).
Anchoring can lead to biased judgments even when the anchor is irrelevant (e.g., Wilson’s study with student ID numbers).
prototypes
Prototype: The most typical or representative example of a category (e.g., a robin is a prototype of a bird).
Prototypes help in categorization by comparing new stimuli to the “best example” of a category.
The more similar something is to the prototype, the faster and easier it is categorized.
insight problems
Insight: A sudden realization of the solution to a problem, often occurring after a period of incubation.
Unlike algorithmic approaches, insight doesn’t follow step-by-step procedures (e.g., solving riddles or puzzles).
Insight problems often require breaking free from conventional thinking, overcoming functional fixedness or mental set.
top down preconceptions
Top-down preconceptions
When we look at a new problem, we tend to encode it in a way consistent with long-term memory
