Theory and methods Flashcards
What are the key ethical issues in research?
Informed consent, confidentiality and privacy, harmful effects, vulnerable groups, covert methods
Ethical considerations are critical in research to protect participants and ensure the integrity of the study.
What practical issues can affect research?
Time and money, requirements of funding bodies, personal skills and characteristics of researchers, subject matter of the study, research opportunity
Practical considerations can significantly influence the feasibility and design of research.
What are the theoretical issues related to research methods?
Reliability, validity, representativeness
Theoretical issues play a crucial role in determining the appropriateness of research methods.
What is the primary focus of positivism in research?
Positivism emphasizes quantitative data and modeling research methods on natural sciences to produce objective knowledge about society.
Positivists believe that social facts can be observed and measured like physical phenomena.
What research methods do positivists prefer?
Experiments, questionnaires, structured interviews, analysis of official statistics
These methods produce quantitative data that positivists favor for establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
What are the key features of laboratory experiments?
Control, cause and effect
Laboratory experiments allow researchers to isolate variables and test hypotheses in a controlled environment.
What challenges do sociologists face with laboratory experiments?
Open systems, studying the past, small samples, Hawthorne effect, expectancy effect
These challenges limit the applicability of laboratory experiments in sociology.
What is informed consent in research?
The agreement of participants to take part in an experiment after being fully informed about its nature, purpose, risks, and uses
Ethical research requires that participants understand what they are agreeing to.
What is the Hawthorne effect?
The alteration of behavior by subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed
This effect can compromise the validity of experimental results.
What do positivists consider a reliable method?
A method that can be replicated by other researchers to obtain the same results
Reliability is crucial for validating research findings.
What is representativeness in research?
The degree to which findings can be generalized to the wider population
Representativeness is essential for making valid conclusions from research.
What is internal validity?
The extent to which the findings of an experiment are true for the subjects involved
Internal validity ensures that the results accurately reflect the behavior of the participants.
What do interpretivists argue about human behavior?
Human behavior cannot be explained solely through cause-and-effect relationships; it is influenced by free will and meanings
Interpretivists emphasize the subjective nature of human experience.
What distinguishes field experiments from laboratory experiments?
Field experiments occur in natural settings and do not inform subjects they are being studied
This approach aims to enhance the validity of research findings.
What is the comparative method in sociology?
A thought experiment that compares two similar groups to identify cause-and-effect relationships
This method relies on existing data rather than direct experimentation.
What are the advantages of the comparative method over laboratory experiments?
Avoids artificiality, can study past events, avoids ethical issues of harming or deceiving subjects
These advantages make the comparative method a valuable alternative in sociological research.
What types of questions can be included in questionnaires?
Closed-ended questions, open-ended questions
Questionnaires are versatile tools for data collection, allowing for a range of response types.
What is a questionnaire?
A research method where people provide written answers to pre-set questions.
What are closed-ended questions?
Questions where respondents must choose from a limited range of pre-selected answers.
What are open-ended questions?
Questions that allow respondents to answer in their own words without pre-selected choices.
What are practical strengths of questionnaires?
- Quick and cheap to gather data
- No need to recruit interviewers
- Data is easy to quantify
What are some limitations of questionnaires?
- Data may be superficial
- Low response rates
- Inflexibility in question design
What is the positivist view on questionnaires?
They believe questionnaires produce representative findings that can be generalized.
How do questionnaires help in hypothesis testing?
They establish correlations between variables, allowing for causal hypotheses to be tested.
What is reliability in the context of questionnaires?
The ability to replicate results using the same method.
What does representativeness mean in research?
The findings can be generalized from the sample studied to the wider population.
Why do positivists favor questionnaires?
- They produce objective data
- They allow for large-scale data collection
- They yield quantitative results
What is a major issue with low response rates in questionnaires?
It can lead to unrepresentative results if respondents differ significantly from non-respondents.
What is the interpretivist critique of questionnaires?
They argue that questionnaires fail to capture the meanings and contexts of respondents’ answers.
What are some factors that can affect the validity of questionnaire data?
- Respondents lying
- Forgetting information
- Trying to impress the researcher
What is the difference between structured and unstructured interviews?
Structured interviews use fixed questions, while unstructured interviews allow for flexibility and follow-ups.
What are the advantages of structured interviews?
- Quick to administer
- Higher response rates
- Easy to quantify results
What is the main similarity between structured interviews and questionnaires?
Both involve asking a fixed set of prepared questions.
What does it mean for structured interviews to be a standardised measuring instrument?
They can be replicated by other researchers using the same method and questions.
How do structured interviews improve representativeness?
- They can survey large numbers quickly
- They often use sophisticated sampling techniques
What is a potential drawback of structured interviews?
They are inflexible and cannot pursue interesting leads that emerge during the interview.
What is a focus group?
A type of group interview where participants discuss specific topics.
Fill in the blank: Questionnaires can be administered by hand, by post, by email, or _______.
[online]
True or False: Interpretivists believe that questionnaires provide a valid understanding of social actors’ meanings.
False
What is the main concern of feminists regarding questionnaires?
They criticize survey methods for potentially misrepresenting women’s experiences.
What does the term ‘detachment’ refer to in positivist research?
The separation of the researcher’s personal biases from the research process.
What is the significance of a standardised questionnaire?
It allows for consistent measurement across different studies.
What is the main advantage of structured interviews in terms of representativeness?
They allow for comparison of answers across interviewees and increase the chances of obtaining a representative sample.
Structured interviews can survey large numbers of people quickly and cheaply.
What concerns do interpretivists have about structured interviews?
They argue that structured interviews produce a false picture of social reality due to closed-ended questions and lack of interviewer flexibility.
Interpretivists prioritize high validity and qualitative methods.
Fill in the blank: Interpretivists believe that to understand social reality, researchers need methods that are high in _______.
validity
What do feminists argue about the relationship between researchers and subjects in structured interviews?
They argue it reflects the exploitative nature of gender relationships in patriarchal society.
This relationship is characterized by detachment and control from the researcher.
According to Ann Oakley, what does the positivistic approach to research prioritize?
Objectivity, detachment, and hierarchy over the interests of the people being researched.
This approach is seen as a ‘masculine’ way of conducting research.
True or False: Official statistics are only produced by government agencies.
False
Non-state organizations also produce statistics, such as churches and charities.
List three sources of information for creating official statistics.
- Registration
- Official surveys
- Administrative records of state agencies
What is a major practical disadvantage of using official statistics?
They may not be available on specific topics of interest to sociologists.
For example, some states do not collect data on ethnicity.
What is the difference between ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ statistics?
‘Hard’ statistics provide a valid picture of reality, while ‘soft’ statistics reflect decisions made by state agencies.
Soft statistics often neglect unrecorded cases.
According to positivists, why are official statistics considered reliable?
They are collected using standardized categories and procedures that can be replicated by others.
This reliability is particularly true for official surveys like the Census.
What do interpretivists believe about the nature of official statistics?
They see them as social constructs that reflect labels attached by officials rather than objective facts.
This perspective emphasizes the social processes involved in labeling.
How do Marxists view official statistics?
They see them as serving the interests of capitalism and concealing the exploitative nature of society.
Official statistics are viewed as ideological tools that maintain the ruling class’s power.
Fill in the blank: The state may change the definitions used in creating official statistics, affecting _______.
comparisons over time or between countries
What type of statistics do positivists favor for studying society?
Official statistics as objective facts.
They use them to identify behavior patterns and test hypotheses.
What is the significance of representativeness in positivist research?
It allows for generalizations about society and testing of hypotheses.
A typical or representative sample is crucial for valid conclusions.
What can affect the validity of official statistics?
Errors in data collection, differing definitions, and the potential for misrepresentation.
For instance, Census coders may make mistakes when recording data.
What is one way that politically sensitive data may not be published?
It may reveal the unequal, exploitative nature of capitalism
For example, since the 1980s, data derived from analysis of Census returns no longer includes class differences in death rates.
How has the definition of unemployment changed in official statistics?
The state has frequently changed its definition, reducing the numbers officially defined as unemployed.
What basis is used for social class categories in official statistics?
Occupation
This gives the impression of a gradual hierarchy of several classes rather than a conflict between two opposed classes.
What do critics argue about some official statistics?
Not all reflect the interests of capitalism; for example, statistics on differences in illness and life expectancy show clear evidence of class inequality.
What do feminists such as Oakley and Graham criticize about quantitative survey methods?
They regard them as a ‘masculine’ or patriarchal model of research.
What do feminists believe official statistics maintain?
Patriarchal oppression
Official statistics are seen as a form of patriarchal ideology that conceals or legitimates gender inequality.
What is the statistical definition of full-time housewives?
‘Economically inactive’
In what year did the definition of a family’s class change to include the household reference person (HRP)?
2001
What is the primary advantage of unstructured interviews?
They allow for flexibility and exploration of topics as they arise.
What is one practical issue related to unstructured interviews?
They take a long time, limiting the number that can be carried out.
What do interpretivists believe is necessary for obtaining valid data?
Getting close to people’s experiences and meanings.
What is grounded theory according to Glaser and Strauss?
Developing and modifying a hypothesis during the actual course of research.
What do positivists argue about the reliability of unstructured interviews?
They lack reliability because each interview is unique.
What issue arises with quantifying data from unstructured interviews?
Answers cannot easily be categorized and quantified.
What is the concern of positivists regarding representativeness in unstructured interviews?
They are less likely to produce representative data due to smaller sample sizes.
How do interpretivists view the lack of standardization in unstructured interviews?
Less of a problem, as they focus on understanding specific contexts rather than generalizations.
What is a feminist perspective on structured interviews?
They are seen as ‘masculine’ and positivistic.
What is one key characteristic of feminist research as described by Oakley?
It is value-committed and aims to give a voice to women’s experiences.
What are the two types of observation in sociology?
- Participant observation
- Non-participant observation
What is overt observation?
The researcher reveals their true identity and purpose.
What is covert observation?
The researcher conceals their true identity and purpose.
What challenges do researchers face when getting into a group for study?
Overcoming suspicions and winning trust.
What dilemma do researchers face once accepted into a group?
Being involved enough to understand while remaining objective.
What happens as researchers spend more time with a group?
They may cease to notice noteworthy behaviors.
What is a common issue when researchers exit a group they have studied?
Leaving can be difficult, especially if close relationships have formed.
What is a key strength of participant observation?
It provides insight into other people’s lives through firsthand experience
This allows researchers to understand meanings, values, and problems from the group’s perspective.
What does the German word ‘verstehen’ mean?
Empathy or subjective understanding
It refers to the process of understanding a group’s life-world as they understand it.
Why might participant observation be the only suitable method for studying certain groups?
Some groups may be suspicious of outsiders and more willing to cooperate with someone who shares their way of life
This is particularly true for groups engaged in deviant activities.
What advantage does participant observation have over structured methods?
It allows researchers to enter with an open mind and formulate new hypotheses as they encounter new situations
This flexibility enables the discovery of insights that other methods might miss.
What are some practical disadvantages of participant observation?
- Time-consuming
- Produces large amounts of qualitative data
- Requires sociological training
- Can be personally stressful and demanding
- May encounter resistance from powerful groups
These challenges can limit the feasibility and effectiveness of the method.
What is the main concern of interpretivists regarding research methods?
To understand actors’ meanings
Interpretivists prioritize producing valid data that accurately reflects the phenomena studied.
What do interpretivists believe is a benefit of participant observation?
It allows sociologists to gain a higher level of involvement and subjective understanding of the group being studied
This involvement leads to more valid and insightful qualitative data.
How do positivists view participant observation?
As an unscientific method lacking objectivity and reliability
They argue it does not yield representative data that can be generalized.
What is a key criticism of participant observation from a positivist perspective?
It often produces unrepresentative samples and lacks standardization
This makes it difficult to generalize findings to the wider population.
What does reliability mean in the context of sociological research?
The ability to obtain the same results if the method is repeated
Reliability requires standardized research procedures.
What is the ‘Hawthorne effect’?
The phenomenon where subjects change their behavior due to the observer’s presence
This can undermine the validity of participant observation studies.
What do structural sociologists criticize about participant observation?
It tends to focus on micro-level interactions and ignores macro structural forces
This can lead to an incomplete understanding of social behavior.
What types of documents do sociologists analyze as a source of qualitative data?
- Public documents
- Personal documents
- Historical documents
These documents provide insights into social events and personal experiences.
What are some advantages of using documents in sociological research?
- Free or cheap source of data
- Saves time
- May provide unique insights
Documents can offer information that may not be accessible through other methods.
What are some reasons that documents may lack validity?
- Authenticity issues
- Credibility concerns
- Misinterpretation risks
These factors can affect the reliability of data obtained from documents.
What is the interpretivist view on the authenticity of documents?
Documents can provide a valid picture of actors’ meanings as they are not created for research purposes
This allows for a more authentic understanding of the author’s perspective.
What is the positivist approach to the use of documents?
They often reject documents as unreliable and unrepresentative, using them mainly for content analysis
Positivists prefer quantitative data for reliability and generalization.
What is a major danger when interpreting documents?
Misinterpreting the writer’s intended meaning and imposing our own meaning on the data.
This is particularly problematic when dealing with documents in foreign languages or with words that have evolved in meaning over time.
Why do positivists regard documents as unreliable sources of data?
Documents are not standardized and each is unique, making it difficult to compare them.
Unlike official statistics, which are compiled according to fixed criteria.
What is the issue of representativeness in document analysis?
Some groups may not be represented in documents, such as the illiterate and those with limited leisure time.
Additionally, the availability of documents can affect representativeness.
What is content analysis?
Converting qualitative data into quantitative data
What are the two main types of content analysis?
Formal content analysis and thematic analysis.
How does formal content analysis work?
It produces quantitative data by categorizing and counting aspects of media messages.
For example, counting how many female characters are portrayed as employed in women’s magazine stories.
Why is formal content analysis attractive to positivists?
It produces objective, representative, quantitative data from which generalizations can be made.
What is a criticism of formal content analysis from interpretivists?
It lacks validity as counting occurrences does not reveal meaning to the author or audience.
What is thematic analysis?
A qualitative analysis that seeks to uncover underlying meanings encoded in documents.
It often involves in-depth analysis of a small number of cases.
What is a key criticism of thematic analysis?
It does not attempt to obtain a representative sample, limiting generalizability.
What practical advantages does content analysis offer?
It is inexpensive and easy to find sources of material such as newspapers and broadcasts.
What is a drawback of both formal and thematic analysis?
Coding or analyzing the data can be very time-consuming.
True or False: Thematic analysis is often criticized for selecting evidence that supports the sociologist’s hypothesis.
True.
Fill in the blank: The 30-year rule prevents access to many _______.
official documents.
Who discussed the limitations of thematic analysis regarding the meaning of documents?
Postmodernists argue that there is no fixed or ‘correct’ meaning to a text.
What did Lesly Best (1993) analyze using formal content analysis?
Gender roles in children’s reading schemes.
Who coined the term ‘sociology’?
Auguste Comte
Comte is considered one of the founding fathers of sociology.
What is the main belief of positivists regarding the study of society?
It is possible and desirable to apply the logic and methods of the natural sciences to the study of society.
What do positivists believe about reality?
Reality exists outside and independently of the human mind.
According to positivists, what is the nature of society?
Society is an objective factual reality made up of social facts.
What is induction in the context of positivism?
Accumulating data through careful observation and measurement to identify general patterns.
What is verificationism?
The approach that claims to verify a theory by proving it true through repeated observations.
What type of explanations do positivists favor?
Macro or structural explanations, such as functionalism and Marxism.
What methods do positivists prefer for research?
Quantitative methods such as questionnaires, structured interviews, and official statistics.
What was Emile Durkheim’s focus in his sociological study?
He studied suicide to demonstrate that sociology is a science with its own distinct subject matter.
What did Durkheim conclude about the patterns in suicide rates?
Patterns in suicide rates were social facts caused by other social facts.
What are two social facts that Durkheim identified as influencing suicide rates?
Levels of integration and regulation.
What do interpretivist sociologists argue about the study of human behavior?
It should focus on meaningful social action and the interpretations of the actors involved.
According to interpretivists, what distinguishes human behavior from natural sciences?
Human behavior is governed by consciousness and meaning, not just external stimuli.
What is verstehen in interpretivism?
Empathetic understanding to grasp the meanings of social actions.
What type of data do interpretivists prefer for their research?
Qualitative methods and data such as participant observation and unstructured interviews.
What is grounded theory according to Glaser and Strauss?
A bottom-up approach where ideas emerge from observations during research.
What do phenomenologists and ethnomethodologists believe about society?
Society exists only in people’s consciousness and is based on shared meanings.
What is Jack Douglas’s view on suicide research?
We must uncover the meanings of suicide for individuals rather than rely on external social facts.
What do postmodernists argue about scientific sociology?
It is a meta-narrative that claims a monopoly on truth and excludes other perspectives.
Who is Sir Karl Popper and what is his contribution to the philosophy of science?
An influential philosopher who distinguished scientific knowledge from other forms.
What does Popper reject about the positivist view of science?
He rejects the idea that induction and verificationism are the distinctive features of science.
What is the fallacy of induction according to Popper?
The error of moving from specific observations to general statements or laws.
What distinguishes scientific knowledge from other forms of knowledge?
Scientific knowledge is unique due to its reliance on falsificationism rather than verificationism.
What is the fallacy of induction according to Popper?
The fallacy of induction is the error of assuming that a general statement is true based on a limited number of observations.
Give an example used by Popper to illustrate the fallacy of induction.
The example of swans: observing many white swans does not prove that all swans are white, as one black swan would falsify the theory.
What is falsificationism?
Falsificationism is the principle that a scientific statement must be capable of being proven wrong by evidence.
What are the two features of a good theory according to Popper?
- It is in principle falsifiable but withstands attempts to disprove it.
- It is bold, making big generalizations that predict a large number of cases.
True or False: For Popper, all knowledge is absolute and cannot be refuted.
False.
What does Popper say about the growth of scientific knowledge?
Scientific knowledge grows rapidly due to the public activity of science and open criticism among scientists.
How does Popper view the relationship between science and society?
Science thrives in open or liberal societies that support free expression and the challenge of accepted ideas.
What is an example of a closed society that stifled scientific growth?
The 17th-century church-dominated Rome, which punished Galileo for his heliocentric claims.
Why does Popper consider much sociology to be unscientific?
Because it consists of theories that cannot be tested and potentially falsified.
Provide an example of a sociological hypothesis that can be tested.
Julienne Ford’s hypothesis that comprehensive schooling would produce social mixing of pupils from different social classes.
What value does Popper see in untestable ideas?
Untestable ideas may become testable in the future and can help clarify thinking and formulate testable hypotheses.
Fill in the blank: According to Popper, a good theory is one that has _______ attempts to falsify it.
withstood.
What does Popper believe about the nature of scientific theories over time?
He believes that all knowledge is provisional and can be refuted at any moment.
What is a paradigm according to Thomas S. Kuhn?
A paradigm is a shared framework of assumptions, principles, methods, and techniques within a scientific community.
How does a paradigm influence scientists in a given field?
It defines what nature is like, what aspects are worth studying, what methods to use, and what questions to ask.
What does Kuhn mean by ‘normal science’?
Normal science is when scientists engage in puzzle solving within the accepted paradigm.
True or False: In Kuhn’s view, a science can exist without a shared paradigm.
False
What happens during a scientific crisis according to Kuhn?
Confidence in the paradigm declines, leading to arguments about assumptions and efforts to reformulate the paradigm.
What is the relationship between rival paradigms according to Kuhn?
Rival paradigms are incommensurable and cannot be judged by the same standards.
What does Kuhn compare the transition from one paradigm to another?
He compares it to a religious conversion.
What is the role of younger scientists in the acceptance of new paradigms?
Younger scientists are more likely to support new paradigms because they have less to lose.
What is the main difference between Popper’s and Kuhn’s views of the scientific community?
Popper sees it as open and critical, while Kuhn views it as conformist during periods of normal science.
What does Kuhn suggest is necessary for sociology to become a science?
A shared paradigm must be established among sociologists.
Fill in the blank: Realists argue that sociologists study _______ systems where processes are too complex for precise predictions.
open
According to realists, what is often assumed in science regarding observable phenomena?
The existence of unobservable structures.
What do positivists believe sociology should study?
Causes of behavior based on social facts or structures external to individuals.
What do interpretivists argue about the study of sociology?
They believe sociology studies meaningful social action and internal meanings, which are not governed by external causes.
Who regarded sociology as the ‘queen of the sciences’?
Auguste Comte
What is historical materialism according to Karl Marx?
A method of historical analysis that reveals the line of development of human society through class-based societies.
What distinction does Max Weber make in sociological research?
He distinguishes between value judgments and facts, arguing they belong to different realms.
List the four stages of the research process according to Max Weber.
- Values as a guide to research
- Data collection and hypothesis testing
- Values in the interpretation of data
What do realists argue about Marxism in terms of scientific validity?
They regard it as scientific because it identifies underlying structures like capitalism.
What is the positivist view of natural science?
Inductive reasoning or verificationism applied to observable patterns.
What do postmodernists argue about the desirability of a paradigm in sociology?
They argue it silences minority views and falsely claims special access to the truth.
Fill in the blank: For Weber, values are essential in enabling researchers to select which aspects of reality to study based on their _______.
value relevance
What does Weber advocate for during data collection in sociological research?
Objectivity and the avoidance of biases.
How does Weber view the role of values in interpreting data?
Values influence the choice of theoretical framework used to understand data.
What is the role of values in the interpretation of data according to Weber?
Values influence the choice of theoretical framework, which is essential for interpreting data and drawing conclusions.
Weber emphasizes that researchers must be explicit about their values to avoid unconscious bias.
How do sociologists claim to approach their research in the mid-20th century?
They argue that their own values are irrelevant to their research and strive for moral neutrality.
This shift aimed to align sociology with the prestige of scientific disciplines.
What does Alvin Gouldner argue about American sociologists in the 1950s?
He argues they became ‘spiritless technicians’ who no longer defined their own research problems and instead served the interests of their paymasters.
This reflects a loss of critical engagement with societal issues.
What is committed sociology?
It is an approach where sociologists openly acknowledge their values and take sides in social issues.
Advocates like Gunnar Myrdal argue that it’s impossible to keep values out of research.
According to Howard Becker, whose side should sociologists take?
Sociologists should take the side of the underdogs, such as criminals and mental patients, rather than the powerful groups.
Becker believes this approach reveals hidden aspects of social reality.
What does Gouldner criticize about Becker’s approach?
He criticizes Becker for being overly romantic and focusing only on the misunderstood rather than those actively resisting oppression.
Gouldner advocates for a Marxist perspective that aims to unmask power dynamics.
What influences the direction of sociological research?
Funding sources, such as government departments and businesses, often control the direction and questions of sociological research.
This can lead to biases in what research is conducted and published.
What are the four basic needs identified by Parsons in his AGIL schema?
- Adaptation
- Goal attainment
- Integration
- Latency
Each need is met by a separate sub-system of institutions in society.
What is the function of the economic sub-system according to Parsons?
It meets the material needs of society through adaptation.
This system is essential for ensuring the survival of society.
What does the term ‘value consensus’ refer to?
It refers to the agreement on shared norms and values that holds society together.
This consensus is crucial for social order and cooperation.
How does socialization contribute to social order according to Parsons?
Socialization teaches individuals to internalize societal norms and values, integrating them into the social system.
Agencies of socialization include family, education, media, and religion.
What does Parsons mean by ‘social control’?
Social control involves using positive and negative sanctions to reward conformity and punish deviance.
This mechanism ensures individuals behave according to shared norms.
What is the relationship between sociological perspectives and the choice of research topics?
Different sociological perspectives embody different values and assumptions that influence their research topics and conclusions.
For example, feminism focuses on gender inequality, whereas Marxism critiques class struggles.
What is relativism in sociology?
It is the idea that different groups have different views of truth, and there is no absolute or objective truth.
This perspective implies that all views are equally valid.
What is a key criticism of postmodernism according to the text?
Postmodernism is self-defeating because it claims no perspective is superior while asserting its own view as true.
This paradox challenges the validity of relativism.
What is the primary question that Parsons seeks to answer in sociology?
How is social order possible and how do individuals cooperate harmoniously?
This question underpins Parsons’ exploration of societal integration.
What role do institutions play in Parsons’ model of the social system?
Institutions consist of related status-roles that help meet the needs of society and maintain social order.
For instance, the family is an institution with roles like mother, father, and child.
What is latency in the context of social systems?
Processes that maintain society over time, providing pattern maintenance and tension management.
What are the instrumental needs identified by Parsons?
Adaptation and goal attainment.
What are the expressive needs identified by Parsons?
Integration and latency.
What distinguishes traditional societies from modern societies according to Parsons?
Traditional societies prioritize collective interests and ascribed status; modern societies emphasize individual self-interest and universalistic standards.
How does Parsons describe social change?
As a gradual, evolutionary process of increasing complexity and structural differentiation.
What is structural differentiation?
The process in which separate, functionally specialized institutions develop to meet different societal needs.
What is dynamic equilibrium in Parsons’ theory?
Compensatory changes in society that occur as a response to changes in one part of the system.
Who criticized Parsons’ systems theory and what was one of the criticisms?
Robert K. Merton criticized the assumption of indispensability.
What does Merton mean by ‘functional alternatives’?
The possibility that functions currently performed by one institution could be performed by others.
What is the distinction between manifest and latent functions?
Manifest functions are intended, while latent functions are unintended consequences of actions.
What is teleology in the context of functionalism?
The idea that something exists solely because of its function or effect.
True or False: Functionalism is considered scientific because it can be falsified.
False.
What do conflict theorists argue about functionalism?
It fails to explain conflict and change in society.
What is the ‘over-socialized’ view of individuals criticized by Dennis Wrong?
The idea that individuals have no free will and are shaped entirely by social systems.
What do postmodernists argue about functionalism?
It assumes stability and order, which cannot account for the diversity and instability in postmodern society.
What is historical materialism according to Marx?
The view that material needs drive human history and the development of societies.
What are the two classes identified by Marx in class societies?
A class that owns the means of production and a class of laborers.
What is the economic base of society according to Marx?
The mode of production, which shapes the superstructure of institutions and beliefs.
What is the surplus product in Marx’s theory?
The difference between what laborers produce and what is needed to keep them alive.
What are the three successive class societies identified by Marx?
- Ancient society (exploitation of slaves)
- Feudal society (exploitation of serfs)
- Capitalist society (exploitation of wage laborers)
What is class consciousness according to Marx?
The awareness of one’s economic and political interests in opposition to those of the exploiters.
What is ideology in Marx’s theory?
The dominant ideas in society that justify the existing social order, produced by the class that owns the means of production.
What is alienation according to Marx?
The loss of control over labor and its products, leading to separation from one’s true nature.
What is alienation according to Marx?
The result of our loss of control over our labour and its products, leading to separation from our true nature.
Alienation exists in all class societies, but peaks under capitalism due to workers’ lack of control over production and intense division of labour.
How does Marx define the state?
As ‘armed bodies of men’ that protect the interests of the ruling class, using it as a weapon in class struggle.
This includes institutions like the army, police, prisons, and courts.
What are the goals of the proletarian revolution according to Marx?
- Abolish the state and create a classless communist society.
- Abolish exploitation and replace private ownership with social ownership.
- End alienation by regaining control over labour and its products.
True or False: Marx believed that previous revolutions were the first by the majority against the minority.
False.
Previous revolutions were minority classes overthrowing other minority classes.
What is economic determinism?
The view that economic factors are the sole cause of everything in society, including social change.
Critics argue it neglects human free will and the role of ideas.
Who is the most important example of humanistic Marxism?
Antonio Gramsci.
Gramsci introduced the concept of hegemony to explain how the ruling class maintains its position.
What does Gramsci mean by ‘hegemony’?
The ideological and moral leadership of society by the ruling class.
It involves both coercion and consent to maintain dominance.
What are the two ways the ruling class maintains dominance according to Gramsci?
- Coercion: using state apparatuses like the army and police.
- Consent: using ideas and values to persuade subordinate classes of their legitimacy.
What is the ‘dual consciousness’ of the proletariat?
The influence of both bourgeois ideology and their material conditions of life, allowing them to see through the dominant ideology.
This awareness can lead to questioning the status quo.
What does Althusser’s model of structural determinism reject?
The traditional base-superstructure model of Marx.
Althusser argues for a more complex relationship between economic, political, and ideological levels.
What are the two types of state apparatuses identified by Althusser?
- Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs): army, police, prisons.
- Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs): media, education system, family.
True or False: Althusser believes that we possess free will and choice.
False.
He argues that our sense of free will is an illusion produced by social structures.
What is the main critique of Althusser’s structuralist Marxism?
It discourages political activism by emphasizing structural factors over individual agency.
Critics argue it overlooks the active struggles of the working class.
What is the distinction between sex and gender according to liberal feminists?
- Sex: biological differences between males and females.
- Gender: culturally constructed differences in roles and identities.
What do liberal feminists advocate for to achieve gender equality?
- Laws and policies against sex discrimination.
- Cultural change to challenge traditional gender stereotypes.
What is the difference between sex and gender according to liberal feminists?
Sex refers to biological differences; gender refers to culturally constructed differences.
How are gender differences transmitted according to liberal feminists?
Through socialisation.
What do liberal feminists believe is necessary to achieve gender equality?
Changing society’s socialisation patterns.
What role models do liberal feminists seek to promote in education?
Female teachers in traditional male subjects.
What are the two types of roles distinguished by functionalists like Parsons?
- Instrumental roles
- Expressive roles
What do liberal feminists argue about men and women in relation to roles?
Both are equally capable of performing roles in both spheres.
What is a key critique of liberal feminism?
It overlooks deep-seated structures causing women’s oppression.
What is the key concept of radical feminism?
Patriarchy.
According to radical feminists, what is the primary form of inequality?
Patriarchy.
What do radical feminists mean by ‘the personal is political’?
Intimate relationships involve domination and power dynamics.
What is one proposed strategy by radical feminists to achieve women’s freedom?
- Separatism
- Consciousness-raising
- Political lesbianism
What do Marxist feminists argue is the main cause of women’s subordination?
Capitalism.
What functions does women’s subordination perform for capitalism according to Marxist feminists?
- Source of cheap labour
- Reserve army of labour
- Reproduce the labour force
- Absorb male frustration
What ideology does Michèle Barrett discuss in relation to women’s subordination?
The ideology of familism.
What is a key critique of Marxist feminism?
It fails to explain women’s subordination in non-capitalist societies.
What do dual systems feminists combine in their theory?
- Economic system: capitalism
- Sex-gender system: patriarchy
What do difference feminists argue about women’s experiences?
Women do not share a single homogeneous experience of oppression.
What do radical feminists believe about the impact of sexuality?
Patriarchy constructs sexuality to satisfy men’s desires.
True or False: Liberal feminists believe that cultural change will lead to gender equality.
True.
Fill in the blank: For radical feminists, all men __________ all women.
oppress
What does Sylvia Walby argue about capitalism and patriarchy?
They are inter-related but their interests do not always coincide.
What is one criticism of radical feminism regarding women’s position?
It assumes all women are in the same position.
What is the stance of Marxist feminists towards the liberal feminist view on women’s subordination?
It is naive to believe that changes in law or attitudes will bring equality.
What does the term ‘sexual politics’ refer to in radical feminism?
Power relationships in personal and sexual relationships.
What is the main critique of the concept of patriarchy according to Anna Pollert?
It is merely a descriptive term for practices like male violence.
What does difference feminism argue about feminist theory?
It claims a ‘false universality’ for itself and primarily reflects the experiences of White, Western, heterosexual, middle-class women.
Difference feminism highlights the diverse experiences of women from different backgrounds.
What criticism do difference feminists have regarding the perception of the family in feminist theory?
White feminists see the family as a source of oppression, neglecting the positive view of the Black family as a source of resistance against racism.
This reflects the differing experiences of women based on race.
Define essentialism in the context of gender.
The idea that all women share the same fundamental ‘essence’ and experiences of oppression.
Essentialism is critiqued by difference feminists for oversimplifying women’s diverse experiences.
How do difference feminists view the focus of Western feminism on sexuality?
They argue it is irrelevant to women in poorer countries who face more pressing issues like access to clean water and healthcare.
This highlights the prioritization of issues based on socio-economic status.
What is poststructuralist feminism concerned with?
Discourses and power/knowledge.
Poststructuralism examines how language and knowledge shape social realities.
What are discourses?
Ways of seeing, thinking, or speaking about something, which can empower or disempower individuals.
Examples include religious, scientific, medical, and artistic discourses.
According to poststructuralists, what is the Enlightenment project?
A discourse that represents a form of power/knowledge, often legitimating domination by Western, White, middle-class males.
It claimed universal ideals while excluding women and other oppressed groups.
What does Judith Butler argue about the claim of ‘universal womanhood’?
She argues that it is falsely claimed by White, Western, middle-class women and does not represent all women’s identities.
Butler emphasizes the diversity of women’s experiences.
What is the poststructuralist view on the concept of ‘womanhood’?
There is no fixed essence of what it is to be a woman; identities are constituted through various discourses.
This means that ‘womanhood’ can differ significantly across cultures and contexts.
How does poststructuralism benefit feminism, according to Butler?
It allows for the deconstruction of different discourses to reveal how they subordinate women.
This approach encourages analyzing various societal narratives that define and oppress women.
What is a criticism of poststructuralist feminism by Sylvia Walby?
While acknowledging differences among women, she argues there are also important similarities, such as facing patriarchy.
Walby points out that women share common struggles despite their differences.
What is Lynne Segal’s critique of poststructuralist feminism?
It abandons the notion of real, objective social structures and overlooks the need to address real inequality.
Segal emphasizes that oppression is not solely a discursive phenomenon.
Fill in the blank: The problem of _______ refers to the idea that all women share the same fundamental ‘essence’.
[essentialism]
Who is considered one of the ‘founding fathers’ of sociology?
Max Weber
Weber (1864-1920) made significant contributions to sociology.
What are the two levels of sociological explanation according to Weber?
- The level of cause
- The level of meaning
What does the level of cause explain in Weber’s sociological explanation?
Objective structural factors that shape people’s behaviour
What does the level of meaning focus on in Weber’s sociological explanation?
Subjective meanings that individuals attach to their actions
What is the significance of The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism in Weber’s work?
It illustrates the relationship between belief systems and changes in behaviour
What belief system introduced by the Protestant Reformation influenced capitalist behaviour?
Calvinism
According to Weber, what type of action involves calculating the most efficient means to achieve a goal?
Instrumentally rational action
What type of action is driven by a goal that the actor regards as desirable for its own sake?
Value-rational action
What characterizes traditional action in Weber’s typology?
Customary, routine, or habitual actions
What type of action expresses emotions according to Weber?
Affectual action
Who criticized Weber’s view of action for being too individualistic?
Alfred Schutz
What concept did Weber advocate to understand actors’ subjective meanings?
Verstehen or empathetic understanding
What is symbolic interactionism primarily concerned with?
The ability to create the social world through actions and interactions
According to G.H. Mead, how do humans differ from animals in their behavior?
Humans respond to the world by giving meanings to significant things
What is a symbol according to Mead?
Something that stands for or represents something else
What is the process called where we interpret the meanings of others’ actions?
Taking the role of the other
Who systematized Mead’s ideas after his death?
Herbert Blumer
What are the three key principles identified by Blumer?
- Meanings arise from the interaction process
- Meanings are negotiable and changeable
- Interpretive procedures shape our actions
What is the definition of the situation in labelling theory?
A label that affects how we act in a given situation
What does the looking glass self concept describe?
How we develop our self-concept through interactions with others
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of labelling theory?
Becoming what others see us as
What is the term used to describe the stages an individual progresses through in their occupation?
Career
Who extended the concept of ‘career’ to include mental illness?
Howard S. Becker
What is Goffman’s dramaturgical model focused on?
How we actively construct our ‘self’ by manipulating others’ impressions
What two key concepts are central to Goffman’s dramaturgical approach?
- Presentation of self
- Impression management
What does Goffman mean by impression management?
Controlling the impression our performance gives to the audience
How does Goffman’s view of roles differ from functionalism?
Roles are loosely scripted and individuals have freedom in how they perform them
What is a criticism of interactionism regarding social structure?
It focuses on face-to-face interactions and ignores wider social structures
What is a limitation of Goffman’s dramaturgical analogy?
Interactions are often improvised and unrehearsed
What is Weber’s category of traditional action?
An action that is often performed unconsciously or routinely and may have little meaning for actors.
What is Goffman’s dramaturgical analogy?
A concept that compares social interactions to a theatrical performance, where everyone plays the part of both actor and audience.
What do ethnomethodologists argue about interactionism?
That it correctly focuses on actors’ meanings but fails to explain how actors create those meanings.
What does the term ‘phenomenon’ refer to in philosophy?
Things as they appear to our senses.
Who developed the philosophy known as phenomenology?
Edmund Husserl.
According to Husserl, how do we make sense of the world?
By imposing meaning and order through constructing mental categories.
What are typifications, according to Alfred Schutz?
Shared categories that enable us to organize our experiences into a shared world of meaning.
How does the meaning of an action vary according to Schutz?
It varies based on its social context.
What is ‘recipe knowledge’ in Schutz’s view?
Commonsense knowledge that allows us to navigate everyday life without much thought.
What is the ‘natural attitude’ as described by Schutz?
The assumption that the social world is a solid, objective reality existing outside of us.
How do Berger and Luckmann differ from Schutz’s view on society?
They argue that society, once constructed, takes on a life of its own and becomes an external reality that reacts back on us.
What does ethnomethodology (EM) focus on?
The methods or rules that we use to produce meanings in our everyday lives.
What is indexicality in Garfinkel’s ethnomethodology?
The idea that meanings are potentially unclear and depend on the context.
What is reflexivity in the context of EM?
The use of commonsense knowledge to construct a sense of meaning and order in everyday interactions.
What are ‘breaching experiments’ in Garfinkel’s research?
Experiments designed to disrupt people’s sense of order and challenge their assumptions about social situations.
What conclusion does Garfinkel draw from breaching experiments?
That social order is an accomplishment of the participants and not inevitable.
How does Garfinkel critique conventional sociology?
By arguing that it merely replicates the commonsense methods used by ordinary members of society.
What is Giddens’ concept of structuration theory?
The idea that structure and agency are two sides of the same coin; neither can exist without the other.
What are the two elements of structure according to Giddens?
- Rules
- Resources
What does Giddens mean by ‘ontological security’?
The need to feel that the world is orderly, stable, and predictable.
How can agency change structures in Giddens’ theory?
- Through reflexive monitoring of actions
- Through unintended consequences of actions
What criticism is directed at Giddens’ structuration theory?
It implies that actors can change structures simply by their actions.
What is the implication of actions in modern society according to the text?
Actions may change the world, but not always as intended, leading to unintended consequences.
What did Weber observe about Calvinists and their intention?
Calvinists adopted the Protestant work ethic to glorify God, but it resulted in the creation of modern capitalism.
What is one criticism of Giddens’ approach in sociological theory?
Giddens underestimates the capacity of structures to resist change.
According to Craig, what does structuration theory fail to explain?
It fails to explain what actually happens in society and merely describes types of actions, rules, and resources.
What is the key political unit in modern society?
The nation-state.
List three characteristics of modern society.
- Centralized state governance
- Administrative bureaucracies
- National identity through symbols
What economic system underpins modern societies?
Capitalism.
What are the principles of Fordism in modern industry?
Mass production of standardised products using low skilled labour.
How has rationality influenced modern society?
Rational, secular, scientific thinking dominates, reducing the influence of magico-religious explanations.
Fill in the blank: Globalisation has created an increasing _______ of people across national boundaries.
interconnectedness.
What are two technological changes contributing to globalisation?
- Satellite communications
- The internet
What does Ulrich Beck argue about contemporary society?
We are living in a ‘risk society’ where human-made technology poses greater threats than natural disasters.
What is a major economic force driving globalisation?
Trans-national companies (TNCs).
What is the term used to describe a global economy that is ‘weightless’?
Electronic economy.
True or False: Globalisation has strengthened the power of the nation-state.
False.
What impact does globalisation have on culture and identity?
It makes it harder for cultures to exist in isolation and leads to a global culture.
What is postmodernism?
An intellectual movement that argues we are now living in a new era characterized by instability and fragmentation.
According to postmodernists, what has happened to the Enlightenment project?
It is considered dead because we cannot guarantee that our knowledge is correct.
What does Jean-François Lyotard argue about knowledge in postmodern society?
Knowledge is a series of different language games with no objective criteria.
What concept does Baudrillard introduce to describe signs that stand for nothing but themselves?
Simulacra.
What is hyper-reality according to Baudrillard?
A condition where signs appear more real than reality itself.
How does postmodernism view identity?
Identity is destabilized and can be constructed from various media images and lifestyles.
List two criticisms of postmodernism from a Marxist perspective.
- It ignores power and inequality
- It overlooks the effects of poverty on identity construction
What is the position of theories of late modernity regarding the changes in society?
They view the changes as a continuation of modernity, not a break from it.
What does Giddens define as disembedding?
The lifting out of social relations from local contexts of interaction.
What is reflexivity in the context of Giddens’ theory?
The process by which individuals reflect on and adapt their actions based on social contexts.
What are the two key features of modernity according to Giddens?
Disembedding and reflexivity
Define disembedding in the context of modern society.
The lifting out of social relations from local contexts of interaction
How has tradition’s role changed in high modern society?
Tradition and custom become much less important and no longer serve as a guide to how we should act
What does reflexivity require individuals to do in high modernity?
Constantly monitor, reflect on, and modify actions based on information about risks and opportunities
What are some of the ‘manufactured’ risks in late modernity?
- Military risks (nuclear war)
- Economic risks (capitalist economy instability)
- Environmental risks (global heating)
- Threats to freedom (increased state surveillance)
True or False: Giddens believes we cannot intervene to improve society due to risks.
False
What does Ulrich Beck refer to late modern society as?
‘Risk society’
What types of dangers does Beck argue late modern society faces?
- Manufactured risks from human activities
- Risks from our inability to control nature (historically)
What does Beck mean by ‘reflexive modernisation’?
The need to think for ourselves and reflect on the consequences of our actions
What is ‘risk consciousness’?
An increased awareness of perceived risks and the desire to avoid or minimize them
How does the media influence our understanding of risks?
It often gives a distorted view of the dangers we face
What stance do postmodernists like Baudrillard take on the Enlightenment project?
They reject the belief in the possibility of progress through rational action
What do Beck and Giddens believe about the potential for rationality in addressing risks?
We can use rationality to evaluate risks and take political action to reduce them
What do critics argue about the relationship between capitalism and risk according to Mike Rustin?
Capitalism’s pursuit of profit at all costs is the source of risk, not technology
What is ‘flexible accumulation’ as described by Harvey?
A new regime of accumulation that allows for customized products and job insecurity
List some characteristics of postmodernity brought by flexible accumulation.
- Cultural diversity
- Constant shifts in fashion
- Commodification of leisure, culture, and identity
What do Harvey and Jameson argue about the political changes in postmodernity?
Flexible accumulation has weakened traditional working-class and socialist movements
What is the ‘rainbow alliance’ in the context of new social movements?
The hope that various oppositional movements can unite to bring about change
What is a major criticism of the social democratic perspective on social policy?
It believes that solutions can be found within capitalism, which Marxists argue is the root cause of inequalities
According to postmodernists, why is it impossible to discover objective truth?
All knowledge produced by research is uncertain
Fill in the blank: Sociologists can only take the role of ______, offering one view of reality among many.
interpreters
What do functionalists believe about the role of sociology in social policy?
Sociology should provide objective, scientific information to help implement rational social policies
What approach do functionalists favor when it comes to social policy?
Piecemeal social engineering
What is a criticism of the piecemeal approach to social policy?
It often fails to address the wider structure of class inequality
How did the Conservative government respond to the Black Report’s recommendations?
They refused to implement the recommendations on grounds of cost
What is the main argument of Marxists regarding the effectiveness of sociological research in shaping policy?
Capitalist states are unlikely to introduce costly public spending policies to benefit the working class
True or False: Sociological research can always influence policy decisions effectively.
False
What influences whether sociological research findings are adopted in policy-making?
- Electoral popularity
- Government ideology
- Interest groups
- Cost
- Funding sources
What role do social scientists’ ideas play in mainstream culture?
They can influence the way people see social problems and thus affect policies
What do postmodernists criticize about sociologists’ influence on policy?
Postmodernists argue that it is impossible to discover objective truth, making sociological findings insufficient for policy-making.
They view sociologists as interpreters rather than legislators.
According to Marxism, how is society structured?
Society is divided by a fundamental conflict of interest between the ruling capitalist class and the working class.
Marxists believe the state represents the interests of the ruling class.
What role do policies play according to Marxists?
Policies serve to:
* Provide ideological legitimation
* Maintain the labour force
* Prevent revolution when class conflict intensifies.
How do Marxists view the welfare state?
Marxists see the welfare state as masking capitalist exploitation and buying off working-class opposition to capitalism.
They argue it gives capitalism a ‘human face’.
What is the Marxist perspective on solving social problems?
The only solution is a revolution to overthrow capitalism and create a classless society.
What do critics argue about Marxist views on social policy?
Critics, including social democrats, argue that Marxist views are impractical and reject the potential for research to lead to progressive policies within capitalism.
What is the fundamental conflict according to feminists?
The fundamental conflict is between genders, with society being patriarchal and benefiting men at women’s expense.
How do family policies reflect patriarchal assumptions?
Family policies often assume the conventional nuclear family as the norm, which can perpetuate gender inequality.
What impact has feminist research had on social policy?
Feminist research has influenced policies in education and family services, promoting anti-discrimination reforms and better representation of women.
What do radical feminists advocate for?
Radical feminists advocate for separatism, believing women need to distance themselves from men to escape patriarchy.
What is the New Right’s view on state involvement in society?
The New Right believes in minimal state involvement, arguing that state welfare undermines individual responsibility.
According to Charles Murray, what do generous welfare benefits create?
Murray argues that generous welfare benefits create ‘perverse incentives’ that lead to a dependency culture.
What is the primary aim of New Right policies?
New Right policies aim to restore individual responsibility for welfare rather than relying on the state.
How has New Right thinking influenced political parties?
New Right thinking has been particularly attractive to the Conservative Party, but some Labour policies also reflect its influence.
What is a criticism of the data used by the New Right?
The validity of the data linking absent fathers to delinquency has been challenged.
What are Consenus theories?
- Functionalism
- New right
What are Conflict theories?
- Marxism
- Feminism
What are Structural theories?
• Top-down approaches that focus on society being more important than the individuals within it
• Role of social institutions and social structures determines the behaviour of individuals - behaviour is shaped by social forces
• Preference for positivist methodologies and quantitative data that offer solutions to social issues
Why are structural theories still relevant?
• Divisions still exist in society - social class, gender and ethnicity
• Relevance of theories such as boundary maintenance, functions of education, social solidarity
• Large sections of society remain part of metanarratives - not quite evolved into a postmodern society
• Social institutions still exist, functions may have changed, but education, family and media still perform vital functions for society
Why are structural theories are not relevant today?
• Increased individual choice and greater diversity means less need for a ‘one size fits all theory
• Society is more fragmented, according to postmodernists and therefore metanarratives lack understanding of variety of different perspectives in society
• Overly deterministic in nature - even theories such as Marxism and feminism have evolved to take into account the different life experiences people have
