Family and households Flashcards
What is the traditional nuclear family model characterized by?
Roles of husbands and wives are segregated
The roles are separate and distinct from one another.
In Parsons’ functionalist model of the family, what role does the husband have?
Instrumental role geared towards achieving success at work
The husband is considered the breadwinner.
What role does the wife play in Parsons’ functionalist model?
Expressive role focused on primary socialization of children and meeting emotional needs
The wife is viewed as the homemaker and full-time housewife.
According to Parsons, what is the basis for the division of labor in the family?
Biological differences
Women are seen as ‘naturally’ suited to nurturing roles, while men are suited to providing.
What does Parsons claim about the division of labor?
It is beneficial to men, women, children, and wider society
Some conservative thinkers, known as the New Right, also support this view.
Who criticized Parsons’ view on the division of labor?
Michael Young and Peter Willmott
They argue that men are taking a greater share of domestic tasks.
What significant social change do Young and Willmott (1962) note?
More wives are becoming wage earners
This indicates a shift in traditional roles.
What do feminist sociologists argue against Parsons’ view?
The division of labor is not natural and only benefits men
Feminists reject the biological justification for role segregation.
What are segregated conjugal roles?
Segregated conjugal roles are where the couple have separate roles: a male breadwinner and a female homemaker/carer. Their leisure activities also tend to be separate.
What are joint conjugal roles?
Joint conjugal roles are where the couple share tasks such as housework and childcare and spend their leisure time together.
Who identified the pattern of segregated conjugal roles in the 1950s?
Young and Willmott identified a pattern of segregated conjugal roles in their study of traditional working-class extended families in Bethnal Green, east London.
What was the role of men in segregated conjugal roles according to Young and Willmott?
Men were the breadwinners, played little part in home life, and spent their leisure time with colleagues in pubs.
What was the role of women in segregated conjugal roles according to Young and Willmott?
Women were full-time housewives with sole responsibility for housework and childcare, helped by their female relatives.
What is the ‘march of progress’ view of family life according to Young and Willmott?
Young and Willmott (1973) see family life as gradually improving for all its members, becoming more equal.
What did Young and Willmott identify in their study of traditional working-class extended families?
They identified a pattern of segregated conjugal roles.
This study was conducted in Bethnal Green, east London, in the 1950s.
What roles did men and women play in traditional working-class families according to Young and Willmott?
Men were the breadwinners and played little part in home life, while women were full-time housewives responsible for housework and childcare.
What trend do Young and Willmott argue has occurred in family roles?
They argue there has been a long-term trend away from segregated conjugal roles towards joint conjugal roles and the ‘symmetrical family’.
What characterizes a symmetrical family according to Young and Willmott?
In a symmetrical family, the roles of husbands and wives are much more similar, although not identical.
What did Young and Willmott find about the symmetrical family?
It was more common among younger couples, those who are geographically and socially isolated, and the more affluent.
What social changes contributed to the rise of the symmetrical nuclear family?
- Changes in women’s position
- Geographical mobility
- New technology and labour-saving devices
- Higher standards of living
How has the position of women changed in relation to the family structure?
Married women going out to work.
What is geographical mobility in the context of family structure?
More couples living away from the communities in which they grew up.
What role do new technology and labour-saving devices play in family dynamics?
They make housework easier and encourage men to do more.
How does a higher standard of living affect family dynamics?
It allows couples to afford more labour-saving devices.
Fill in the blank: The rise of the symmetrical nuclear family is seen as a result of _______.
[major social changes]
True or False: The symmetrical family is primarily associated with older couples.
False
What is the relationship between married women’s wages and family living standards?
Married women bringing a second wage into the home raises the family’s standard of living.
Who argued that women working full-time leads to a more equal division of labour in the home?
Jonathan Gershuny
What did Jonathan Gershuny’s time studies show about women working full-time?
These women did less domestic work than other women.
What did Sullivan’s analysis of nationally representative data from 1975, 1987, and 1997 reveal?
A trend towards women doing a smaller share of domestic work and men doing more.
What significant change did Sullivan’s analysis show regarding couples?
An increase in the number of couples with an equal division of labour.
What tasks traditionally associated with women are men participating more in, according to recent trends?
- Childcare
- Household chores
- Caregiving
According to the British Social Attitudes survey (2013), what was the trend regarding beliefs about gender roles in earning money and domestic responsibilities?
A fall in the number of people believing it is the man’s job to earn money and the woman’s job to look after home and family.
What percentage of men agreed in 1984 that it was the man’s job to earn money?
45%
What percentage of women agreed in 1984 that it was the man’s job to earn money?
41%
What were the percentages of men and women agreeing with traditional gender roles by 2012?
13% of men and 12% of women.
Fill in the blank: The ‘march of progress’ view suggests that men are becoming more involved in _______ and childcare.
housework
True or False: Sullivan found that men were participating less in traditional ‘women’s’ tasks over the years.
False
What was the primary demographic of women in Oakley’s study in the 1970s?
Full-time housewives
What trend has been observed regarding wives and work since the 1970s?
Many more wives go out to work, either full-time or part-time
What does the ‘march of progress’ view suggest about working partners?
It suggests a more equal division of domestic tasks with a ‘new man’ taking responsibility
What is the feminist view regarding the trend of both partners working?
Women have to carry a ‘dual burden’ of paid work as well as domestic work
Fill in the blank: The trend towards both partners working raises questions about equality in _______.
domestic tasks
True or False: The ‘march of progress’ view implies that housework and childcare responsibilities are equally shared.
True
True or False: The feminist view supports the idea that the division of domestic tasks has become more equal.
False
What term does Hochschild use to describe the responsibility of managing emotions within families?
‘Emotion work’
This concept refers to the effort involved in managing the emotions of family members.
Who argues that women perform a ‘triple shift’?
Jean Duncombe and Dennis Marsden
The ‘triple shift’ includes housework, paid work, and emotion work.
What is one responsibility women have in emotion work?
Managing the emotions and feelings of family members
This includes handling jealousies and conflicts between siblings.
True or False: Emotion work only involves the emotions of the individual performing it.
False
Emotion work involves managing the emotions of others while controlling one’s own.
Fill in the blank: Women are often required to perform _______ work, which involves managing family members’ emotions.
[emotion]
What are the two explanations for the unequal division of labour identified by Crompton and Lyonette?
Cultural explanations and material explanations
These explanations highlight different factors contributing to gender roles in domestic labour.
What does the cultural or ideological explanation of inequality suggest?
The division of labour is determined by patriarchal norms and values shaping gender roles
This perspective emphasizes societal expectations and socialization regarding domestic labour.
According to the cultural explanation, why do women perform more domestic labour?
Because that is what society expects them to do and has socialised them to do
This indicates that cultural norms play a significant role in shaping labour divisions.
What is the material or economic explanation of inequality?
Women’s generally lower earnings lead to them doing more housework and childcare
This view highlights the economic rationale behind the division of labour.
Fill in the blank: The _______ explanation of inequality focuses on patriarchal norms shaping gender roles.
cultural or ideological
Fill in the blank: The _______ explanation of inequality suggests that economic factors influence the division of domestic labour.
material or economic
True or False: The cultural explanation of inequality argues that women perform more domestic labour due to economic necessity.
False
The cultural explanation focuses on societal expectations rather than economic factors.
True or False: The material explanation of inequality posits that lower wages for women lead to greater domestic responsibilities.
True
What is necessary for achieving equality in gender roles?
Changes in attitudes, values, expectations, role models, and socialisation
Who found that couples with parents in equal relationships are likely to share housework equally?
Gershuny (1994)
What does Gershuny argue about social values and women’s employment?
They are adapting to the fact that women are now working full-time, establishing a new norm for men’s domestic work
What did Man Yee Kan (2001) discover about younger men’s domestic work?
Younger men do more domestic work
According to the Future Foundation (2000), how do men’s and women’s perceptions of housework compare to their parents’?
Most men claimed to do more housework than their father and most women claimed to do less than their mother
What did the British Social Attitudes survey (2013) reveal about under-35s and traditional division of labor?
Less than 10% agreed with a traditional division of labor
What percentage of people over 65 agreed with a traditional division of labor according to the British Social Attitudes survey (2013)?
30%
What long-term change does the British Social Attitudes survey (2013) indicate?
A change in norms, values, and attitudes towards more equal relationships among younger age groups
What did Gillian Dunne (1999) find about lesbian couples’ relationships?
They had more symmetrical relationships due to the absence of traditional heterosexual ‘gender scripts’
Fill in the blank: A traditional heterosexual ‘gender script’ refers to _______.
[norms that set out the different gender roles men and women are expected to play]
What is the relationship between women’s earnings and domestic work?
For every £10,000 a year more a woman earns, she does two hours less housework per week
This finding was reported by Kan.
What did Arber and Ginn (1995) find regarding middle-class women and domestic tasks?
Better-paid, middle-class women were more able to buy in commercially produced products and services
These include labour-saving devices, ready meals, domestic help, and childcare.
What did Xavier Ramos (2003) discover about domestic labor in households where women are the breadwinners?
Where the woman is the full-time breadwinner and the man is unemployed, he does as much domestic labour as she does.
According to Sullivan, what factor significantly affects the amount of domestic work each partner does?
Working full-time rather than part-time makes the biggest difference.
What is suggested as a reason why working full-time affects domestic work distribution?
Working full-time brings women’s earnings much closer to those of their partners.
True or False: In seven out of eight households, women earn more than men.
False
Men earn more than women in seven out of eight households.
What is a significant reason women earn less than men, particularly those with young children?
Women are more likely to work part-time.
What conclusion does Rosemary Crompton (1997) reach regarding the division of labor?
There is no immediate prospect of a more equal division of labour if this depends on economic equality between the sexes.
What do Michelle Barrett and Mary Mcintosh (1991) note about men’s gain from women’s domestic work?
Men gain far more from women’s domestic work than they give back in financial support
This highlights the unequal distribution of benefits in domestic labor.
What are the two main types of control over family income identified by Jan Pahl and Carolyn Vogler?
• The allowance system
• Pooling
The allowance system involves wives receiving a budgeted allowance, while pooling allows both partners to access income and share expenditure responsibilities.
What is the allowance system in family income control?
Wives receive an allowance to budget for family needs, while the man retains surplus income.
This system can lead to unequal financial power dynamics within the family.
What does pooling refer to in the context of family income management?
Both partners have access to income and share responsibility for expenditures, often through a joint bank account.
Pooling is increasingly common in modern households.
True or False: Pooling is now the least common money management system among families.
False
Pooling has become the most common money management system.
Fill in the blank: The _______ system involves wives receiving a set allowance from which they must budget for family needs.
[allowance system]
This system often leads to unequal financial control.
Which money management system is on the increase according to Pahl and Vogler?
Pooling
This reflects a shift towards more egalitarian financial practices in families.
What does pooling indicate in decision-making among couples?
More equality in decision-making and control over resources
In couples where pooled income is controlled by the husband, what is the impact on decision-making power?
Gives men more power in major financial decisions
According to Pahl and Vogler (2007), who usually makes major financial decisions even with pooling?
Men
What did Irene Hardill’s (1997) study reveal about decision-making in dual-career professional couples?
Important decisions were usually made by the man alone or jointly with him having priority
How does Janet Finch (1983) describe the structuring of women’s lives in relation to their husbands?
Women’s lives tend to be structured around their husbands’ careers
In Stephen Edgell’s (1980) study, who made very important decisions like finance or moving house?
Husband alone or jointly with the husband having final say
Who typically made important decisions about children’s education or holidays in Edgell’s study?
Usually taken jointly, seldom by the wife alone
What type of decisions were usually made by the wife according to Edgell’s findings?
Less important decisions like home decor, children’s clothes, or food purchases
What reason did Edgell provide for men making more decisions?
Men earn more and women are economically dependent
What did Laurie and Gershuny (2000) find about couples’ perceptions of decision-making equality by 1995?
70% of couples said they had an equal say in decisions
Who were more likely to have an equal say in decisions according to Laurie and Gershuny (2000)?
Women who were high earning, well qualified professionals
What does the personal life perspective focus on regarding money?
The meanings couples give to who controls the money
This perspective emphasizes that the significance of money in relationships varies based on individual interpretations.
What assumption might people have about one partner controlling money in a relationship?
It is a sign of inequality in the relationship
This assumption may not hold true for all couples.
What did Carol Smart (2007) find about same-sex couples and money control?
Some gay men and lesbians attached no importance to who controlled the money
They were happy to leave this decision to their partners without seeing it as a matter of equality or inequality.
What typical money management pattern did Weeks et al (2001) find in couples?
Pooling some money for household spending and separate accounts for personal spending
This arrangement reflects a value of ‘co-independence’.
What does ‘co-independence’ refer to in the context of money management in relationships?
Sharing resources while each partner retains control over some money
It allows couples to maintain a sense of independence.
What did Smart suggest about the relationship dynamics of same-sex couples?
They have greater freedom to do what suits them as a couple
This is attributed to not carrying the same cultural baggage regarding money.
What historical context do same-sex couples avoid that influences money control in heterosexual relationships?
The historical, gendered, heterosexual baggage of cultural meanings around money
This baggage often associates money with power dynamics.
What is the essential starting point for supporters of the personal life perspective?
The personal meanings of the actors involved in the situation
This perspective emphasizes understanding individual interpretations in relationships.
True or False: The control of money in a relationship is universally seen as a source of power.
False
Different couples may interpret money control in varied ways.
Fill in the blank: The money management system found by Weeks et al (2001) reflects a value of _______.
‘co-independence’
This term illustrates the balance between sharing and individual control.
What is a common view of domestic violence?
It is the behaviour of a few disturbed or ‘sick’ individuals with psychological causes.
This view has been challenged by sociologists who argue for a broader social context.
How widespread is domestic violence according to the Women’s Aid Federation (2014)?
Domestic violence accounts for between a sixth and a quarter of all recorded violent crime.
This statistic highlights the prevalence of domestic violence in society.
What did the Crime Survey for England and Wales (2013) reveal about domestic abuse?
Two million people reported having been victims of domestic abuse during the previous year.
This indicates the high incidence of domestic abuse in the population.
What social pattern is associated with domestic violence?
It is mainly violence by men against women.
This pattern emphasizes gender dynamics in domestic violence.
According to Kathryn Coleman et al (2007), who is more likely to experience ‘intimate violence’?
Women are more likely than men to have experienced intimate violence across all four types of abuse.
The four types of abuse include partner abuse, family abuse, sexual assault, and stalking.
What statistic is provided by Coleman and Osborne (2010) regarding female homicide victims?
Two women a week are killed by a partner or former partner, representing one third of all female homicide victims.
This statistic underscores the lethal consequences of domestic violence.
What did Russell and Rebecca Dobash’s research (1979: 2007) in Scotland reveal about domestic violence?
They found instances of wives being slapped, pushed, beaten, raped, or killed by their husbands.
Their research was based on police and court records as well as interviews with women in refuges.
What triggers violent incidents according to Dobash and Dobash’s findings?
Incidents can be set off by a husband’s perception of a challenge to his authority.
An example includes a wife asking why her husband was late home for a meal.
How does marriage relate to domestic violence according to Dobash and Dobash?
Marriage legitimates violence against women by conferring power and authority on husbands and dependency on wives.
This perspective highlights the structural issues within marital relationships.
Why do official statistics on domestic violence understate the true extent of the problem?
Two main reasons: victims may be unwilling to report it and police/prosecutors may be reluctant to record or investigate cases
Victims often face fear of reprisals or believe the situation is too trivial for police involvement.
On average, how many assaults does a woman suffer before making a report?
35 assaults
This statistic was found by Stephanie Yearnshire in 1997.
What is the violent crime least likely to be reported?
Domestic violence
This highlights the significant underreporting of domestic violence cases.
What are the assumptions made by police and state agencies about family life?
- The family is a private sphere
- The family is a good thing
- Individuals are free agents
These assumptions contribute to the neglect of domestic violence cases.
Why might police and other state agencies be reluctant to get involved in domestic violence cases?
They believe family matters should remain private and often overlook the darker side of family life
This reluctance can lead to underreporting and inadequate responses to domestic violence.
What is a common financial issue faced by abused women?
Financial dependence on their husbands
This economic power dynamic often prevents women from leaving abusive situations.
What percentage of reported domestic violence incidents resulted in convictions during 2006-11?
6.5%
This low conviction rate indicates that successful prosecutions are only a small fraction of actual cases.
Fill in the blank: Domestic violence is the violent crime least likely to be _______.
reported
This emphasizes the challenges in accurately measuring the prevalence of domestic violence.
True or False: Victims of domestic violence are more likely to report their experiences than victims of other forms of violence.
False
Victims of domestic violence are less likely to report due to various fears and beliefs.
What do radical feminists interpret findings such as those of Dobash and Dobash as evidence of?
Patriarchy
Radical feminists use these findings to support their view that all societies are founded on patriarchal structures.
Who are two key figures associated with radical feminist theory?
Kate Millett and Shulamith Firestone
Both argue that all societies have been founded on patriarchy.
According to radical feminists, what is the key division in society?
Between men and women
They view men as the oppressors and exploiters of women.
What do radical feminists see as the key institutions in patriarchal society?
Family and marriage
They believe these institutions are the main sources of women’s oppression.
How do radical feminists believe men dominate women within the family?
Through domestic violence or the threat of it
This domination is seen as a means to maintain patriarchal control.
What do radical feminists view as an inevitable feature of patriarchal society?
Widespread domestic violence
They argue that it serves to preserve the power men have over women.
What explanation do radical feminists provide for why most domestic violence is committed by men?
Sociological explanation linked to dominant social norms about marriage
They emphasize societal patterns rather than psychological factors.
What factor do radical feminists believe contributes to the reluctance of police and courts to address domestic violence effectively?
Male domination of state institutions
This domination influences how cases of domestic violence are handled.
What is Faith Robertson Elliot’s stance on radical feminist claims regarding men and violence against women?
Elliot rejects the claim that all men benefit from violence against women, stating that not all men are aggressive and most oppose domestic violence.
Elliot emphasizes that radical feminists ignore the majority of men who do not condone violence.
What aspect of violence do radical feminists fail to explain according to Elliot?
Female violence, including child abuse by women and violence against male partners and within lesbian relationships.
Elliot highlights that radical feminists focus solely on male violence without acknowledging female-perpetrated violence.
According to the Crime Survey for England and Wales (2013), what percentage of men have experienced domestic violence since the age of 16?
18%
This translates to approximately 2.9 million men.
How do radical feminists use the concept of patriarchy in their explanation of domestic violence?
They use it to explain why most victims of domestic violence are women.
However, they wrongly assume that all women are equally at risk of patriarchal violence.
What do radical feminists fail to explain about women who are victims of domestic violence?
They fail to explain which women are most likely to be victims.
They provide a general explanation but do not address specific vulnerabilities among women.
According to the Office for National Statistics (2014), which social groups of women face a greater risk of domestic violence?
- Young women
- Those in the lowest social classes and those living in the most deprived areas
- Those on low incomes or in financial difficulties
- Those living in shared and rented accommodation
- Those with high levels of alcohol consumption or using illegal drugs
- Those with a long-term illness or disability.
These groups are identified as being at higher risk compared to others.
What does the materialist explanation of domestic violence focus on?
Economic and material factors such as inequalities in income and housing.
Who are the researchers associated with the materialist explanation of domestic violence?
Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pickett.
According to Wilkinson and Pickett, what is a significant cause of domestic violence?
Stress on family members caused by social inequality.
What does inequality mean in the context of domestic violence?
Some families have fewer resources than others.
How do low income and overcrowded accommodation relate to domestic violence?
They likely lead to higher levels of stress and increase the risk of conflict and violence.
What are some examples of stressors that may lead to domestic conflict?
- Worries about money
- Worries about jobs
- Worries about housing
What impact does a lack of money and time have on individuals under stress?
It restricts their social circle and reduces social support.
According to Wilkinson and Pickett, who is most at risk of suffering domestic violence?
Those with less power, status, wealth, or income.
What is a limitation of Wilkinson and Pickett’s approach to domestic violence?
It does not explain why women rather than men are the main victims.
Who describes wives as ‘takers of shit’ in the context of domestic violence?
Fran Ansley.
What do Marxist feminists argue is the cause of domestic violence?
Capitalism.
According to Fran Ansley, why do male workers commit domestic violence?
They take out their frustration from being exploited at work on their wives.
What does the argument by Marxist feminists fail to explain?
Why not all male workers commit acts of violence against their partners.
What is one case that is not accounted for by the materialist or Marxist feminist explanations?
Cases of female domestic violence.
How do sociologists view childhood?
As socially constructed, created and defined by society
This perspective suggests that childhood is not a universal experience but is shaped by cultural and societal norms.
What do sociologists argue about the concept of childhood?
It is not fixed and differs between different times, places, and cultures
This indicates that the understanding of childhood can vary significantly across various contexts.
What can be used to illustrate the differences in the concept of childhood?
Comparing the western idea of childhood today with childhood in the past and in other societies
Such comparisons highlight how societal changes and cultural contexts influence perceptions of childhood.
What is the general societal belief about childhood?
Childhood is a special time of life and children are fundamentally different from adults.
How are children regarded in terms of competence?
Children are seen as physically and psychologically immature and not yet competent to run their own lives.
What is the significance of separateness in the modern idea of childhood?
Childhood is seen as a clear and distinct life stage, with children occupying a separate status from adults.
How is the separateness of children’s status emphasized?
Through laws regulating what children are allowed, required or forbidden to do, and differences in dress and products for children.
What is the idea of childhood as a ‘golden age’?
Childhood is viewed as a time of happiness and innocence.
Why are children seen as vulnerable?
Their innocence means they need protection from the dangers of the adult world.
Where do children primarily live their lives?
In the sphere of the family and education.
What is the typical role of children in terms of work?
Children lead lives of leisure and play, and are largely excluded from paid work.
Is the view of childhood as a separate age-status universal?
No, it is not universal and varies across different societies.
What does Stephen Wagg (1992) say about childhood?
Childhood is socially constructed and not a single universal experience.
What is the distinction between childhood and biological immaturity?
Childhood is a social construct, while biological immaturity is a natural stage of development.
How do western cultures typically define children?
As vulnerable and unable to fend for themselves.
Do other cultures view the difference between children and adults similarly?
No, other cultures may not see such a great difference between children and adults.
Fill in the blank: Childhood is seen as a _______ of happiness and innocence.
golden age
What is a good way to illustrate the social construction of childhood?
A comparative approach, looking at how children are seen and treated in different times and places.
According to Ruth Benedict, how are children in simpler, non-industrial societies treated differently?
In three ways: early responsibility, less emphasis on obedience, and different views on sexual behavior.
What responsibility do children in rural Bolivia take on at an early age?
They take work responsibilities in the home and community starting around age five.
What did Samantha Punch’s study (2001) find about children’s responsibilities in Bolivia?
Children are expected to undertake tasks without question or hesitation.
What did Lowell Holmes’ study (1974) reveal about children’s tasks in a Samoan village?
Children were not deemed ‘too young’ to handle tasks, including dangerous tools or heavy loads.
How is obedience to adult authority viewed among the Tikopia of the western Pacific?
It is regarded as a concession granted by the child, not a right expected by the adult.
What attitude do adults among the Trobriand Islanders have towards children’s sexual behavior?
They exhibit tolerance and amused interest towards children’s sexual explorations.
What key idea does Benedict argue regarding childhood?
Childhood is not a fixed universal concept but is socially constructed and varies across cultures.
Fill in the blank: According to Ruth Benedict, childhood is _______.
[socially constructed and differs from culture to culture]
True or False: In non-industrial cultures, there is a clear dividing line between the behavior expected of children and that expected of adults.
False
What do many sociologists and historians argue about childhood?
Childhood as we understand it today is a relatively recent ‘invention’
This suggests that the concept of childhood has evolved over time and varies across cultures.
According to Philippe Ariès, what was the perception of childhood in the Middle Ages?
‘The idea of childhood did not exist’
Ariès argues that children were not seen as having different needs or nature from adults.
What happened to children shortly after being weaned in the Middle Ages?
They entered wider society on much the same terms as an adult
This often involved beginning work from an early age, similar to adults.
How were children viewed in terms of rights and duties during the Middle Ages?
Children were in effect ‘mini-adults’ with the same rights, duties, and skills as adults
This included facing the same severe punishments as adults under the law.
What evidence does Ariès use to support his view on childhood in the Middle Ages?
Works of art from the period
These artworks depict children without characteristics of childhood, shown on a smaller scale.
What does Ariès observe about the clothing and activities of children in medieval art?
Children and adults are dressed in the same clothing and working and playing together
This reflects the lack of distinction between childhood and adulthood.
How did parental attitudes towards children in the Middle Ages differ from today according to Edward Shorter?
High death rates encouraged indifference and neglect, especially towards infants
This led to practices such as naming newborns after deceased siblings.
Fill in the blank: In the Middle Ages, parents might refer to a baby as _______.
‘it’
This indicates a lack of emotional attachment due to high infant mortality.
What was common regarding how many children parents in the Middle Ages could remember having?
They often forgot how many children they had had
This reflects the impact of high mortality rates on parental attachment.
What elements of the modern notion of childhood began to emerge from the 13th century onwards?
Specialized schools for the young, distinction in clothing, availability of childrearing handbooks
These developments reflected the influence of the church and changing societal views on children.
What role did the church play in the perception of children during the 13th century?
The church saw children as fragile ‘creatures of God’ needing discipline and protection
This perspective influenced educational practices and societal attitudes towards children.
How did clothing distinctions between children and adults evolve by the 17th century?
Upper-class boys wore outfits reserved for their own age group, distinguishing them from adults
This change reflected a growing recognition of childhood as a distinct phase of life.
What sign of growing child-centeredness emerged in the 18th century?
Widespread availability of handbooks on childrearing
This was particularly evident among the middle classes.
What does Ariès argue about the modern ‘cult of childhood’?
We have moved from a world that did not see childhood as special to one obsessed with childhood
He describes the 20th century as ‘the century of the child’.
What criticism do some sociologists have regarding Ariès’ view on childhood in the past?
Critics argue that childhood did exist in the past but was understood differently
Linda Pollock (1983) emphasizes that society had a different notion of childhood during the Middle Ages.
What is the significance of Ariès’ work on the concept of childhood?
It shows that childhood is socially constructed and varies over time
He highlights how ideas about children and their social status have changed.
Fill in the blank: According to Ariès, the 20th century is described as _______.
‘the century of the child’
This reflects a shift in societal focus towards the importance of childhood.
True or False: Ariès claimed that childhood did not exist in the past.
True
His argument has been contested by other sociologists who propose alternative views.
What effect did laws restricting child labour have on children’s economic status?
Children became an economic liability, financially dependent on their parents
Prior to these laws, children were seen as economic assets contributing to family income.
What significant change was introduced in 1880 regarding children’s education?
Compulsory schooling was introduced
This primarily affected the children of the poor, as middle- and upper-class children were already receiving education.
How did the raising of the school-leaving age affect children’s dependency?
It extended the period of dependency on parents
Children remained financially reliant for a longer time.
What was the fundamental principle of the 1989 Children Act?
The welfare of the child
This principle underpins the work of agencies such as social services.
What does the Children Act emphasize regarding parental roles?
Parents have ‘responsibilities’ rather than ‘rights’
This shift reflects a broader understanding of children’s rights.
What basic rights are outlined in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)?
Entitlement to healthcare and education, protection from abuse, and the right to participate in decisions
These rights include involvement in custody cases.
What social changes have encouraged greater parental investment in children?
Declining family size and lower infant mortality rates
Parents are more likely to make financial and emotional investments in fewer children.
What did Jacques Donzelot observe about child development theories?
They stressed that children need supervision and protection
This observation reflects a growing awareness of children’s developmental needs.
What do laws and policies regarding minimum ages for activities signify about children?
They reinforce the idea that children are different from adults
Different rules must be applied to their behavior.
What is industrialisation’s role in the modern concept of childhood?
It underlies many changes in children’s status and education
The shift from agriculture to factory production necessitated an educated workforce.
How did industrialisation impact infant mortality rates?
It led to higher standards of living and better welfare provisions
These improvements contributed to lower infant mortality rates.
Who is the author that argues childhood is ‘disappearing at a dazzling speed’?
Neil Postman
Postman published his views in 1994.
What trend does Postman identify as contributing to the disappearance of childhood?
Giving children the same rights as adults
This includes the loss of traditional unsupervised games.
What does Postman suggest is a factor in the emergence and disappearance of childhood?
The rise and fall of print culture and its replacement by television culture
This shift influences children’s experiences and perceptions.
During which historical period were most people illiterate?
Middle Ages
Illiteracy meant that speech was the primary skill for adult participation.
What was the association between childhood and adult society during the Middle Ages?
There was no division between the world of the adult and that of the child
Childhood was not linked to innocence or mystery.
Fill in the blank: In Postman’s view, childhood is disappearing due to the growing similarity of adults’ and children’s _______.
clothing
This reflects a broader trend towards adultification of childhood.
True or False: Postman believes that childhood has always been associated with innocence.
False
He argues that this association developed over time.
What extreme behavior does Postman cite as an example of children’s changing roles?
Children committing ‘adult’ crimes such as murder
This exemplifies the loss of innocence associated with childhood.
What does Postman argue about the emergence of childhood as a separate status?
Childhood emerged as a separate status along with mass literacy, from the 19th century on.
This emergence is linked to the creation of an information hierarchy due to the printed word.
What creates an information hierarchy according to Postman?
The printed word creates an information hierarchy.
This hierarchy establishes a sharp division between adults, who can read, and children, who cannot.
What power do adults gain due to the information hierarchy?
Adults gain the power to keep knowledge about adult matters a secret from children.
This includes topics such as sex, money, violence, illness, and death.
How is childhood associated according to the text?
Childhood came to be associated with innocence and ignorance.
This association stems from the secrets kept by adults.
What effect does television have on the distinction between childhood and adulthood?
Television blurs the distinction between childhood and adulthood by destroying the information hierarchy.
Unlike the printed word, TV makes information accessible to both adults and children.
What skills are required to access information on television?
Television does not require special skills to access it.
This contrasts with the printed word, which requires reading skills.
What happens to adult authority as a result of television’s impact?
Adult authority diminishes.
This occurs as the boundary between adult and child is broken down.
What replaces the ignorance and innocence of childhood in the context of television?
Knowledge and cynicism replace the ignorance and innocence of childhood.
This shift is due to the exposure to information through television.
What is the counterpart of the disappearance of childhood?
The disappearance of adulthood.
This results in adults’ and children’s tastes and styles becoming indistinguishable.
What does Christopher Jenks believe about childhood?
Childhood is changing, not disappearing
Jenks argues against Postman’s view that childhood is disappearing.
According to Jenks, what was the view of childhood in modern society?
Childhood was seen as preparation for adulthood
This perspective emphasized nurturing and protecting vulnerable children.
What societal shift does Jenks identify that affects childhood?
The shift from modernity to postmodernity
This change influences the stability of adult relationships and childhood experiences.
How does postmodern society impact adult relationships and childhood?
Relationships become more unstable and divorce becomes common
This instability generates feelings of insecurity among adults.
In postmodern society, what role do children play for adults?
Children become a source of identity and stability for adults
Despite marital issues, adults find refuge in their parental roles.
What are adults increasingly fearful of in postmodern society?
Fear for their children’s security
This fear drives a preoccupation with protecting children from dangers.
What effect does the fear for children’s security have on societal views of childhood?
Strengthens the view of children as vulnerable and in need of protection
This leads to greater surveillance and regulation of children’s lives.
What does Jenks assert about the legal status of childhood?
Childhood continues to be a separate status marked by restrictions
Legal and other restrictions differentiate children from adults.
True or False: Jenks agrees with Postman that childhood is disappearing.
False
Jenks believes childhood remains a distinct phase of life.
What is limited regarding evidence for and against Jenks?
Evidence both for and against Jenks is limited
What do parents perceive as more important than their relationship with partners?
Their relationship with their children
What are parents very concerned about regarding their children?
The risks they believe their children face
From where does the evidence about parents’ concerns come?
Small, unrepresentative studies
What is Jenks accused of in his analysis?
Over-generalising
What does Jenks overlook about family and childhood patterns?
The greater diversity of family and childhood patterns today
Fill in the blank: Jenks makes rather _______ generalisations.
broad
What types of family structures have increased diversity according to the text?
- Lone-parent families
- Step-families
What do sociologists argue about the family in modern society?
The family has become child-centred.
In what way has the perception of children changed from Victorian times?
Children are no longer to be ‘seen and not heard’; they are now the focal point of the family.
How are children involved in family decisions today?
Children are consulted on many decisions as never before.
What do parents invest in their children in modern families?
Parents invest a great deal emotionally and financially.
What aspirations do parents have for their children?
Parents often have high aspirations for their children to have a better life and greater opportunities.
Is the child-centred focus limited to families?
No, society as a whole is also child-centred.
What are examples of societal elements designed specifically for children?
Much media output and many leisure activities.
Fill in the blank: In modern families, children are now the _______.
[focal point of the family]
True or False: Parents in modern society do not invest much in their children.
False
What term does Sue Palmer use to describe the negative experiences of children in the UK?
‘toxic childhood’
Sue Palmer (2007; 2010) argues that children are facing detrimental conditions due to societal changes.
What are some factors that have contributed to ‘toxic childhood’ according to Sue Palmer?
- Junk food
- Computer games
- Intensive marketing to children
- Long hours worked by parents
- Growing emphasis on testing in education
These factors have been linked to damage in children’s physical, emotional, and intellectual development.
What health and behavior issues are prevalent among UK youth?
- Above average rates of obesity
- Self-harm
- Drug and alcohol abuse
- Violence
- Early sexual experience
- Teenage pregnancies
These issues indicate serious concerns regarding the well-being of young people.
In a UNICEF survey in 2013, what position did the UK rank out of 29 for children’s well-being?
16th
This ranking highlights concerns about the overall well-being of children in the UK compared to other countries.
True or False: The position of children in the UK is considered better than ever according to some writers.
False
Some writers argue that children’s experiences are deteriorating rather than improving.
What term does Diana Gittins use to describe inequalities between adults and children?
Age patriarchy
Gittins (1998) argues that just as feminists describe male domination, there is also a form of adult domination over children.
How does Gittins relate the concept of patriarchy to family structure?
Patriarchy means ‘rule by the father’
The term ‘family’ originally referred to the power of the male head over all household members.
What forms of power does age patriarchy manifest in today’s society?
Violence against children and women
Gittins points out that patriarchy still asserts itself through various forms of oppression.
According to Humphreys and Thiara (2002), what percentage of women in their study left their abusive partner due to fears for their children’s safety?
A quarter
This finding supports Gittins’ view of the oppression of both women and children under patriarchy.
Fill in the blank: Gittins argues that there is an age _______ of adult domination and child dependency.
patriarchy
True or False: The concept of age patriarchy only addresses the relationship between men and women.
False
Age patriarchy also addresses the relationship between adults and children.
What percentage of the world’s low birth-weight babies are born in developing countries?
90%
This statistic highlights the disparity in health outcomes based on geographical and economic contexts.
According to Mayer Hillman (1993), which gender is more likely to be allowed to cross or cycle on roads, use buses, and go out after dark unaccompanied?
Boys
This reflects societal norms and expectations regarding gender roles in childhood.
What did Jens Bonke (1999) find regarding domestic labor differences between boys and girls?
Girls do more domestic labour, especially in lone-parent families
Girls were found to do five times more housework than boys in such families.
In Julla Brannen’s (1994) study, which group of parents was found to be more likely to be strict towards their daughters?
Asian parents
This indicates cultural variations in parenting styles and expectations.
What concept does Ghazala Bhatti (1999) associate with restrictions on the behavior of girls?
Izzat (family honour)
This reflects cultural values that may limit girls’ freedoms.
List three consequences for children born into poor families.
- More likely to die in infancy or childhood
- Suffer longstanding illness
- Fall behind at school
These factors contribute to significant inequalities in childhood development.
Children of unskilled manual workers are how much more likely to suffer from hyperactivity compared to children of professionals?
Over three times more likely
This statistic illustrates the impact of social class on mental health outcomes.
How many times more likely are children of unskilled manual workers to experience conduct disorders compared to children of professionals?
Four times more likely
This emphasizes the relationship between socio-economic status and behavioral issues.
What is the main argument regarding the concept of ‘children’ in the text?
‘Children’ cannot be spoken of as if they were all equal
Social class, gender, and ethnic differences significantly affect children’s life chances.
What are two key factors that affect the life chances of children according to the text?
- Social class
- Gender and ethnic differences
These factors create disparities in experiences and opportunities for children.
What do Functionalists believe society is based on?
A value consensus - a set of shared norms and values.
How does society socialize its members according to Functionalists?
Through a value consensus that enables cooperation to meet society’s needs.
What is the view of society according to Functionalists?
A system made up of different parts or sub-systems that depend on each other.
Which sub-systems do Functionalists often refer to?
- Family
- Education system
- Economy
What analogy do Functionalists use to describe society?
A biological organism.
What is the role of the family according to Functionalists?
To meet some of society’s essential needs.
Who argues that the family performs four essential functions?
George Peter Murdock (1949).
List the four essential functions of the family according to Murdock.
- Stable satisfaction of the sex drive with the same partner
- Reproduction of the next generation
- Socialisation of the young into society’s shared norms
- Meeting its members’ economic needs
What does the family prevent by providing stable satisfaction of the sex drive?
Social disruption caused by a sexual ‘free-for-all’.
What is necessary for society’s continuation according to Functionalists?
Reproduction of the next generation.
What is one of the economic needs that the family meets?
Food and shelter.
True or False: Functionalists see the family as a non-essential sub-system of society.
False.
Fill in the blank: Functionalists compare society to a _______.
biological organism.
What does Murdock argue about the nuclear family?
It is a practical way of meeting four essential needs, making it universal across all human societies.
What are the criticisms of Murdock’s view on the nuclear family?
Critics argue other institutions could perform the same functions and that nonnuclear family structures could be equally effective.
Which groups reject Murdock’s view of the family?
Marxists and feminists.
True or False: Murdock believes the family meets the needs of wider society and all family members equally.
True.
According to feminists, what role does the family serve?
It serves the needs of men and oppresses women.
What do Marxists argue about the family’s role in society?
It meets the needs of capitalism, not those of family members or society as a whole.
Fill in the blank: Marxists and feminists argue that functionalism neglects ______ and ______.
conflict and exploitation.
What is the ‘rose-tinted’ view that critics attribute to Murdock?
The belief that the family harmoniously meets the needs of society and all family members.
What is Parsons’ ‘functional fit’ theory?
The theory that the functions a family performs depend on the society in which it is found, affecting its structure.
What are the two types of family structures identified by Parsons?
- Nuclear family (parents and dependent children)
- Extended family (three generations living together)
According to Parsons, what type of family fits the needs of industrial society?
Nuclear family
What type of family fits the needs of pre-industrial society according to Parsons?
Extended family
What essential need does modern industrial society have regarding the workforce?
A geographically mobile workforce
Why is the nuclear family better suited for a geographically mobile workforce?
It is easier for a compact two-generation nuclear family to move than for a three-generation extended family.
What is the second essential need of modern industrial society according to Parsons?
A socially mobile workforce
In modern society, how is an individual’s status achieved?
Through their own efforts and ability, not ascribed by social and family background.
What conflict may arise in an extended family regarding status?
Tensions may arise if an adult son has a higher achieved status at work than his father, who has a higher ascribed status at home.
What is the solution Parsons proposes for the conflict of status in extended families?
Adult sons should leave home when they marry and form their own nuclear family.
How does the nuclear family encourage social mobility?
By allowing individuals to achieve higher status based on their abilities rather than their family background.
What characterizes the mobile nuclear family in relation to extended kin?
It is ‘structurally isolated’ from extended kin with no binding obligations.
True or False: The extended family has overriding duties to help one another during times of crisis.
True
Fill in the blank: Parsons argues that the nuclear family encourages _______ as well as geographical mobility.
social mobility
What societal changes led to the decline of the extended family in Britain according to Parsons?
The industrialization of Britain from the late 18th century onwards.
What do functionalists believe about the foundation of society?
Society is based on value consensus (agreement)
Functionalists emphasize agreement and shared values as the basis for social stability.
According to Marxist sociologists, what is the basis of capitalist society?
An unequal conflict between two social classes: the capitalist class and the working class
The capitalist class owns the means of production, while the working class is exploited for profit.
What institutions do Marxists believe help maintain class inequality?
Education system, media, religion, state, and family
These institutions are seen as tools that reinforce capitalist interests.
How do Marxists view the functions of the family?
Performed purely for the benefit of the capitalist system
This contrasts with functionalists, who believe the family benefits both society and its members.
What is one function of the family identified by Marxists?
Inheritance of property
This function is crucial for maintaining class structures.
What determines the shape of social institutions, including the family, according to Marxists?
The mode of production
This includes who owns and controls society’s productive forces.
What term did Marx use to describe the earliest classless society?
‘Primitive communism’
In this society, there was no private property and means of production were communally owned.
What did Friedrich Engels call the early social structure before the family as we know it?
‘Promiscuous horde’ or tribe
This structure had no restrictions on sexual relationships.
What led to the development of the patriarchal monogamous nuclear family?
The emergence of private property and a class of men controlling the means of production
This transition marked a significant change in social organization.
Why did Engels believe monogamy became essential?
To ensure legitimate heirs inherited private property
This necessity arose from the need for men to be certain of paternity.
What did Engels describe as a ‘world historical defeat of the female sex’?
The rise of the monogamous nuclear family
It placed women’s sexuality under male control.
According to Marxists, how can women achieve liberation from patriarchal control?
Through the overthrow of capitalism and collective ownership of the means of production
This would eliminate the need for the patriarchal family.
In a classless society, what will no longer be necessary?
The patriarchal family
This is because there will be no need to transmit private property.
What do Marxists mean by ‘ideology’?
A set of ideas or beliefs that justify inequality and maintain the capitalist system
It persuades people to accept capitalism as fair, natural, or unchangeable.
How does the family socialize children according to Marxist theory?
By teaching them that hierarchy and inequality are inevitable
Parental power, especially paternal, prepares children to accept orders from employers.
What is the role of parental power in a child’s upbringing according to Marxists?
It acclimatizes them to the idea that there always has to be someone in charge
This often reinforces male authority.
What does Eli Zaretsky argue about the family’s role in capitalism?
The family offers an apparent ‘haven’ from the harsh outside world
It allows workers to ‘be themselves’ and have a private life.
According to Zaretsky, what is the illusion regarding the family?
The family cannot meet its members’ needs
This is exemplified by the domestic servitude of women.
True or False: Marxists believe the family plays no role in maintaining capitalism.
False
The family performs key ideological functions for capitalism.
Fill in the blank: According to Marxists, the family prepares children for a working life in which they will accept _______ from their capitalist employers.
orders
What is the primary way capitalism exploits workers?
By selling the products of their labour for more than it pays them to produce these commodities.
How does the family contribute to capitalist profits?
It is an important market for the sale of consumer goods.
What phrase do advertisers use to encourage consumption among families?
Keep up with the Joneses.
Who does the media target to influence spending in families?
Children.
What term describes children’s ability to persuade parents to spend more?
‘Pester power’.
What happens to children who lack the latest clothes or gadgets?
They are mocked and stigmatised by their peers.
According to Marxists, what functions does the family perform that maintain capitalist society?
- Inheritance of private property
- Socialisation into acceptance of inequality
- Source of profits
True or False: Marxists believe that the functions of the family benefit its members.
False.
Fill in the blank: The family plays a major role in generating profits for capitalists by being an important market for the sale of _______.
consumer goods.
What do Marxists assume about family structures in capitalist society?
Marxists tend to assume that the nuclear family is dominant in capitalist society
This view ignores the wide variety of family structures found in society today.
What is a key criticism feminists have of the Marxist perspective?
Feminists argue that the Marxist emphasis on class and capitalism underestimates the importance of gender inequalities within the family
They believe that gender inequalities are more fundamental than class inequalities.
According to feminists, what is the primary function of the family?
The family primarily serves the interests of men, not capitalism.
What do functionalists argue against the Marxist perspective regarding the family?
Functionalists argue that Marxists ignore the very real benefits that the family provides for its members.
What do liberal feminists campaign for?
Equal rights and opportunities for women, including equal pay and an end to discrimination in employment.
Liberal feminists focus on legal reforms and changing societal attitudes to achieve gender equality.
What legislation is cited as a significant step against discrimination in employment?
The Sex Discrimination Act (1975).
This law outlaws discrimination in employment based on sex.
What is the liberal feminist view on progress towards equality?
They believe we are moving towards greater equality but require further reforms and changes in attitudes and socialization patterns of both sexes.
Liberal feminists emphasize gradual progress rather than immediate equality.
How do liberal feminists view changes within the family?
They hold a view similar to ‘march of progress’ theorists, noting gradual progress towards gender equality within the family.
They reference theorists like Young and Willmott who support this perspective.
What evidence do liberal feminists cite to support their view of progress in the family?
Studies suggesting that men are doing more domestic labor and that parents socialize their sons and daughters more equally than in the past.
This reflects changing aspirations for children regardless of gender.
What criticism do other feminists have towards liberal feminists?
They criticize liberal feminists for failing to challenge the underlying causes of women’s oppression and believing that legal or attitudinal changes alone will suffice for equality.
Marxist and radical feminists argue that deep-rooted social structures must be changed.
Fill in the blank: Liberal feminists argue that full equality will depend on further _______.
[reforms].
True or False: Liberal feminists believe that full gender equality has already been achieved in the family.
False.
They acknowledge that while progress has been made, full equality has not yet been realized.
According to Marxist feminists, what is the main cause of women’s oppression in the family?
Capitalism
Marxist feminists argue that capitalism, rather than men, is the primary cause of women’s oppression.
What functions does women’s oppression perform for capitalism?
- Reproducing the labour force through unpaid domestic labour
- Absorbing anger directed at capitalism
- Serving as a reserve army of cheap labour
These functions highlight the economic role women play within a capitalist society.
What is the role of women in reproducing the labour force?
Socialising the next generation of workers and maintaining the current one
Unpaid domestic labour is crucial for sustaining the workforce.
What did Fran Ansley describe wives as, in the context of Marxist feminism?
‘Takers of shit’
This term reflects the idea that wives absorb their husbands’ frustrations from work, illustrating male domestic violence.
How do Marxists explain male domestic violence against women?
As a result of men’s frustration from alienation and exploitation at work
This perspective links domestic violence to broader economic conditions.
What is meant by women being a ‘reserve army of cheap labour’?
Women can be hired when needed and let go to return to unpaid domestic labour
This concept illustrates how women’s roles in the workforce are often temporary and contingent.
How do Marxist feminists view the relationship between women’s oppression in the family and the exploitation of the working class?
They see them as linked
Women’s oppression is viewed as a reflection of broader class exploitation.
What do Marxist feminists argue must happen simultaneously to abolish the oppression of women?
The family must be abolished alongside a socialist revolution
This reflects the belief that fundamental social change is necessary to achieve gender equality.
Fill in the blank: Marxist feminists believe that women’s oppression serves to _______ anger that would otherwise be directed at capitalism.
absorb
True or False: Marxist feminists argue that men are the primary cause of women’s oppression.
False
They argue that capitalism is the main cause.
What do radical feminists argue is the foundation of all societies?
Patriarchy - rule by men
Radical feminists believe that societies are fundamentally structured around male dominance.
According to radical feminists, what is the key division in society?
Between men and women
Radical feminists emphasize this division as central to understanding oppression.
Who do radical feminists consider to be the enemy in society?
Men
They view men as the source of women’s oppression and exploitation.
What key institutions do radical feminists identify in a patriarchal society?
The family and marriage
These institutions are seen as mechanisms through which men benefit from women’s labor.
What do radical feminists argue must be abolished to achieve women’s liberation?
The family
They see the family as the root of women’s oppression.
What strategy do radical feminists advocate for achieving independence from men?
Separatism
Women should organize themselves to live independently of men.
What concept do many radical feminists support regarding relationships?
‘Political lesbianism’
This concept suggests that heterosexual relationships are inherently oppressive.
What alternative living arrangement does Germaine Greer propose?
All female or ‘matrilocal households’
Greer suggests this as an alternative to the traditional heterosexual family.
How do liberal feminists like Jenny Somerville critique radical feminism?
They argue that women’s position has improved considerably
Improvements include better access to divorce, job opportunities, and reproductive rights.
What does Somerville argue about heterosexual attraction in the context of separatism?
It makes separatism unlikely to work
She believes that attraction complicates the feasibility of living separately from men.
What does Somerville suggest is still needed for women to achieve full equality?
‘Family friendly’ policies
Such policies include more flexible working arrangements to promote equality between partners.
What do difference feminists argue about women’s experiences?
They argue that we cannot generalise about women’s experiences
Difference feminists emphasize the diversity of experiences among women based on various factors.
Which groups do difference feminists highlight as having different experiences of family life?
- Lesbian and heterosexual women
- White and black women
- Middle-class and working-class women
These groups experience family life in distinct ways due to their unique social positions.
How do white feminists view the family, according to the text?
They regard the family purely negatively
This perspective can overlook the specific experiences of women of color.
What is the perspective of black feminists on the black family?
They view the black family positively as a source of support and resistance against racism
This highlights the resilience and strength found within the black family structure.
What criticism do some feminists have about difference feminism?
It neglects the fact that all women share many of the same experiences
This criticism points out that while differences exist, there are also common challenges faced by all women.
Fill in the blank: All women face a risk of _______ and sexual assault.
[domestic violence]
This highlights a shared experience among women regardless of their different backgrounds.
What are some common challenges faced by women according to the text?
- Domestic violence
- Sexual assault
- Low pay
These issues affect women across various social and economic contexts.
What is the primary focus of the sociology of personal life?
Understanding families from the perspective of individuals and the meanings they give to their relationships.
How does the personal life perspective differ from Functionalism, Marxism, and feminism?
It adopts a ‘bottom up’ approach rather than a ‘top down’ structural approach.
What is a key characteristic of the personal life perspective?
It emphasizes the meanings that individual family members hold and how these shape their actions and relationships.
What types of relationships does the personal life perspective include beyond traditional family ties?
Relationships that individuals see as significant, including friendships, fictive kin, and relationships with pets.
Fill in the blank: The personal life perspective takes a _______ approach to relationships.
bottom up
What does the term ‘fictive kin’ refer to?
Close friends who are treated as relatives.
True or False: The personal life perspective only considers blood and marriage ties as family.
False
What example is given to illustrate the complexity of family relationships?
A woman caring for a non-relative while feeling distant from her own sister.
What did Becky Tipper (2011) find regarding children’s views of family relationships?
Children frequently saw their pets as ‘part of the family.’
According to the personal life perspective, what counts as family is determined by _______.
the individuals involved
What did Nordqvist and Smart find regarding donor-conceived children?
They found that the issue of blood and genes raised a range of feelings.
What can cause difficult feelings for a non-genetic parent of a donor-conceived child?
If someone remarked that the child looked like them.
What questions do parents of donor-conceived children wonder about regarding the donor’s identity?
They wonder about possible ‘donor siblings’ and whether these counted as family.
What must couples who know their donor resolve regarding family relationships?
They must resolve questions about who counts as family, such as whether the donor’s parents count as grandparents.
Is a donor-conceived child considered a (half) sibling to the donor’s other children?
Yes, this is a question that needs to be resolved.
What additional concerns do lesbian couples face with donor-conceived children?
Concerns about equality between the genetic and non-genetic mothers.
What worry might lesbian couples have regarding the donor’s role?
They might worry that the donor could be treated as the ‘real’ second parent.
What are the two main factors determining the birth rate?
- Proportion of women of childbearing age (15-44)
- Fertility rate (number of children women have)
The birth rate is influenced by both the number of women who can have children and the average number of children they choose to have.
What does the total fertility rate (TFR) measure?
The average number of children women will have during their fertile years.
TFR is a key indicator of population growth and demographic trends.
What was the UK’s TFR in 2001?
1.63 children per woman.
This represented an all-time low for the UK.
What was the UK’s TFR in 2014?
1.83 children per woman.
Although this is an increase from the 2001 low, it remains below historical levels.
What was the peak TFR in the UK and when was it reached?
2.95 children per woman in 1964.
This peak occurred during the 1960s baby boom.
What trend is observed regarding women remaining childless?
More women are remaining childless than in the past.
This reflects changing social norms and personal choices regarding family planning.
What is the average age for giving birth now?
30 years old.
This indicates a trend of women postponing childbirth.
How are fertility rates for women in their 30s and 40s changing?
They are on the increase.
This may be due to various factors including career advancement and improved reproductive health.
True or False: Older women are generally more fertile than younger women.
False.
Older women may be less fertile and have fewer fertile years remaining.
Fill in the blank: The changes in fertility and birth rates reflect that more women are _______.
remaining childless.
This change indicates a shift in societal expectations and personal choices.
What are the reasons for the decline in the birth rate?
- Changes in women’s position
- Decline in the infant mortality rate
- Children are now an economic liability
- Child centredness
What is the dependency ratio?
The relationship between the size of the working or productive part of the population and the size of the non-working or dependent part of the population.
Who must support the dependent population?
The working population through their earnings, savings, and taxes.
What demographic group makes up a large part of the dependent population?
Children.
How does a fall in the number of children affect the burden of dependency?
It reduces the ‘burden of dependency’ on the working population.
What is a potential long-term consequence of fewer babies being born?
Fewer young adults and a smaller working population, which may increase the burden of dependency.
What trend is indicated by vanishing children?
Falling fertility rates lead to fewer children.
How might childhood experiences change due to fewer children?
Childhood may become a lonelier experience as fewer children will have siblings.
What is a potential societal effect of having more childless adults?
Fewer voices speaking up in support of children’s interests.
Fill in the blank: Fewer children could mean they will come to be more _______.
[valued]
What is one consequence of a lower birth rate on public services?
Fewer schools and maternity and child health services may be needed
This can also affect the cost of maternity and paternity leave and the types of housing that need to be built.
How can government decisions impact the number of schools in relation to birth rates?
The government could decide to have smaller class sizes instead of reducing the number of schools
This highlights the political nature of decisions regarding public services.
What demographic change occurs as a result of women having fewer babies?
The average age of the population is rising
This results in more old people relative to young people.
Fill in the blank: A lower birth rate can lead to a decrease in the need for _______.
schools
True or False: A lower birth rate has no impact on public services.
False
What is one effect of an ageing population?
There are more old people relative to young people
This demographic shift can have various implications for society.
Reasons for the decline in death rate
- Improved nutrition
- Medical improvements
- Smoking and diet
- Public health measures
- Other social changes
What is one factor contributing to the ageing of the population?
Increasing life expectancy
People are living longer into old age.
What is a second factor leading to an ageing population?
Declining infant mortality
Nowadays hardly anyone dies early in life.
What is the third factor causing the ageing of the population?
Declining fertility
Fewer young people are being born in relation to the number of older people in the population.
Fill in the blank: The ageing of the population is caused by increasing life expectancy, declining infant mortality, and _______.
declining fertility
True or False: Declining fertility contributes to a younger population.
False
Fewer young people being born leads to an ageing population.
What is the primary focus when examining the effects of an ageing population?
The consequences of an ageing population
Which age group consumes a larger proportion of health and social care services?
Older people, particularly the ‘old old’ (75 or over)
What is the term used to describe households with only one pensioner?
One-person pensioner households
What percentage of all households do one-person pensioner households account for?
12.5% or one in eight
Why are there more one-person pensioner households among females?
Women generally live longer than men and are usually younger than their husbands
What is the dependency ratio?
The ratio of non-working old and young who need to be provided for by the working age population
What was the dependency ratio in 2015?
3.2 people of working age for every one pensioner
What is the predicted dependency ratio by 2033?
2.8 to one
True or False: The increase in the number of retired people guarantees economic dependence.
False
At what age will both men and women be able to draw their state pension starting in 2020?
66 years old
When will the pension age rise to 67?
From 2026
What phenomenon has been described as the ‘feminisation of later life’?
The higher number of women than men among the over-75s
Fill in the blank: The increase in the number of old people raises the dependency ratio, but this is offset by a declining number of _______.
dependent children
What changes may occur in response to an ageing population besides increased health care expenditure?
Changes to policies and provision of housing, transport, or other services
What is ageism often attributed to in modern society?
It is often attributed to institutional dependency.
According to sociologists, what role does paid work play in societal status?
Societal status is largely determined by one’s role in production.
What identity is associated with individuals excluded from production?
A dependent status and a stigmatised identity.
What does Phillipson (1982) argue from a Marxist perspective regarding the elderly?
The old are of no use to capitalism because they are no longer productive.
Who often takes responsibility for the care of the elderly in modern society?
The family, especially female relatives.
How is life structured in modern society?
Life is structured into a fixed series of stages, such as childhood and youth.
What impact does age have on role allocation in modern society?
Age creates fixed life stages and age-related identities.
What is the consequence of the elderly being excluded from the labor force?
They become dependent and powerless.
What do postmodernist sociologists argue about the life course in today’s society?
The fixed, orderly stages of the life course have broken down.
What trends indicate the blurring of life stages in postmodern society?
Children dressing in adult styles, later marriage, and early retirement.
In postmodern society, what becomes the key to our identities?
Consumption, not production.
According to Hunt (2005), how can individuals define themselves in postmodern society?
By what they consume, regardless of age.
What types of products and services do the elderly market for in postmodern society?
Body maintenance or rejuvenation goods and services.
Fill in the blank: In postmodern society, age no longer determines _______.
[who we are or how we live].
True or False: In modern society, the elderly are often seen as productive members of the workforce.
False.
What does Donald Hirsch argue is a key issue related to an ageing population?
How to finance a longer period of old age.
This includes considerations on savings, taxes, and working longer.
What are the two main strategies proposed to finance a longer period of old age?
- Paying more from savings and taxes while working
- Working for longer
Both strategies aim to alleviate financial pressures due to an ageing population.
How might housing policy need to change in response to an ageing population?
Encourage older people to ‘trade down’ into smaller accommodation.
This would help release wealth and improve living standards for older individuals.
What cultural change does Hirsch suggest is necessary alongside policy changes for an ageing population?
A change in attitudes towards old age.
This cultural shift is essential for implementing effective social policies.
How does Hirsch view the concept of old age?
As a social construct shaped and defined by society.
This perspective contrasts with viewing old age as a purely biological fact.
What might change in an ageing society regarding retirement?
Our idea of how old is old enough to retire may change.
This reflects the evolving perceptions of age and retirement age.
What are the effects of migration on demographic characteristics?
Migration affects age structure and fertility rates.
This indicates that migration can lead to changes in population dynamics.
What are the two main types of factors that drive migration?
Push and pull factors.
Push factors are conditions that drive people away from their home country, while pull factors attract them to a new location.
How has globalisation impacted migration?
Globalisation has increased migration.
This suggests that interconnected economies and cultures encourage more movement of people across borders.
What trend has been observed in the diversity of migration?
There is more diversity in types of migration.
This includes various forms such as economic, forced, and voluntary migration.
What is a common characteristic of modern migrants?
Transitional identities are more common.
This reflects the blending of cultures and identities as people migrate.
What political aspect has affected migration?
Migration has become politicised.
This indicates that migration issues are often debated in political contexts, influencing policies and public opinion.
What is a potential issue with assimilationist policies?
Assimilationist policies may be self-defeating.
This suggests that forcing migrants to conform to the dominant culture can lead to resistance and social tension.
What are the three kinds of changes in the law that have made divorce easier?
- Equalising the grounds for divorce between the sexes
- Widening the grounds for divorce
- Making divorce cheaper
These changes have contributed to rising divorce rates over time.
When were the grounds for divorce equalised for men and women?
1923
This change led to a sharp rise in divorce petitions from women.
What is ‘empty shell’ marriage?
A marriage where the couple continues to live together but remains married in name only.
What does the term ‘stigma’ refer to in the context of divorce?
The negative label, social disapproval or shame attached to a person, action or relationship.
How has the stigma attached to divorce changed since the 1960s?
It has rapidly declined, making divorce more socially acceptable.
What is secularisation?
The decline in the influence of religion in society.
How has secularisation affected attitudes towards divorce?
The traditional opposition of churches to divorce carries less weight, making individuals less influenced by religious teachings.
What do functionalists argue about rising expectations of marriage?
Higher expectations make couples less willing to tolerate an unhappy marriage.
What is the dominant belief about love that has emerged over the last couple of centuries?
Individuals should marry based solely on love and seek their ‘Mr or Miss Right.’
What do Graham Allan and Graham Crow state about the cornerstones of marriage?
- Love
- Personal commitment
- Intrinsic satisfaction
The absence of these feelings is seen as justification for ending a marriage.
What is one reason for the increase in women’s willingness to seek divorce?
Improvements in their economic position have made them less financially dependent on their husband.
What was the proportion of women working in 1971 compared to 2013?
53% in 1971 and 67% in 2013.
What trend has been observed regarding young people’s marriage rates based on religion?
Only 3% of young people with no religion were married compared to up to 17% of those with a religion in 2001.
In 1989, what percentage of people believed couples wanting children should get married?
70% in 1989.
What percentage of people held the same belief in 2012?
42% in 2012.
What has contributed to the increase in remarriages?
The rise in the number of divorces.
What trend is observed regarding the age at which couples marry?
The age is rising due to young people postponing marriage for education and career.
Why are couples less likely to marry in church today?
- Secularisation
- Many churches refuse to marry divorcees
This reflects changing societal attitudes towards marriage.
True or False: The functionalist view sees the rising divorce rates as a negative trend.
False
Functionalists like Fletcher take an optimistic view of marriage despite rising divorce rates.
What is one reason for the increase in cohabitation rates?
Decline in stigma attached to sex outside marriage
In 1989, only 44% of people agreed that ‘premarital sex is not wrong at all’, but this increased to 65% by 2012.
Which demographic is more likely to accept cohabitation?
The young
Younger individuals tend to have more progressive views on cohabitation.
How have increased career opportunities for women affected marriage?
Women have less need for the financial security of marriage
This allows women to opt for cohabitation instead.
What role does secularisation play in cohabitation rates?
Young people with no religion are more likely to cohabit
This trend indicates a shift in values related to marriage and cohabitation.
What percentage of all families with children are lone-parent families?
22%
This means one child in four lives in a lone-parent family.
What percentage of lone-parent families are headed by lone mothers?
Over 90%
This indicates that very few lone-parent families are headed by fathers.
Which group of lone mothers became the largest from the early 1990s?
Single (never married) women
Previously, divorced women were the biggest group of lone mothers.
How much more likely is a child living with a lone parent to be in poverty compared to a child living with two parents?
Twice as likely
This highlights the economic challenges faced by lone-parent families.
What are two reasons for the increase in lone-parent families?
- Increase in divorce and separation
- Increase in never-married women having children
These trends are linked to changing societal norms.
What historical cause of lone-parent families has become less significant?
Death of one parent
This was once a common cause but is now less prevalent.
List three reasons why lone-parent families tend to be female-headed.
- Belief that women are suited to nurturing roles
- Divorce courts usually give custody to mothers
- Men may be less willing to give up work to care for children
These factors contribute to the gender dynamics in lone-parent families.
What does ‘single by choice’ refer to in the context of lone-parent families?
Mothers who choose not to cohabit or marry
They may wish to limit the father’s involvement with the child.
Who found that professional women could support their child without the father’s involvement?
Jean Renvoize (1985)
This study highlights the ability of some women to be self-sufficient.
What did Ellis Cashmore (1985) discover about some working-class mothers?
They chose to live on welfare benefits without a partner
Often, this choice was influenced by experiences of abuse.
How have feminist ideas and greater opportunities for women affected lone-parent families?
They may have encouraged an increase in never-married lone mothers
This reflects changing societal attitudes towards motherhood and family structures.
What proportion of families with dependent children headed by a black person were lone-parent families in 2012?
Just over half
This contrasts with only one in nine Asian families and just under a quarter for the population as a whole.
What historical factors are cited as contributing to the high rate of female-headed, lone-parent black families?
Slavery and high rates of unemployment among black males
Under slavery, couples were often sold separately, resulting in children staying with mothers.
Who argues that the higher rate of lone-parent families among blacks reflects the high value placed on independence by black women?
Heidi Safia Mirza
This perspective challenges the notion of family disorganisation.
What do Tracey Reynolds (2010) argue about statistics on lone-parent families?
They are misleading
Many apparently lone parents are actually in stable, supportive non-cohabiting relationships.
What is the average household size for Bangladeshi, Pakistani, and Indian households?
4.4, 4.3, and 3 persons respectively
This is larger than the average of 2.4 for Black Caribbean and White British households.
What cultural value contributes to the larger household sizes in Asian families?
The value placed on the extended family
Practical considerations also play a role, such as support during migration.
What did Roger Ballard (1982) find about extended family ties among Asian migrants?
They provided an important source of support
This was particularly true during the 1950s and 1960s.
How did the composition of Asian households change over time after migration?
Most became nuclear, but relatives often lived nearby
Frequent visiting and kinship networks continued to provide support.
Which ethnic or religious groups are more likely to live in extended family units today?
Sikhs, Muslims, and Hindus
These groups maintain a stronger tendency for extended family living compared to others.
What perspective does the New Right hold on the family?
Conservative and anti-feminist perspective
The New Right is firmly opposed to family diversity.
According to the New Right, what is the only correct or normal family type?
The traditional nuclear family
This view aligns with functionalist beliefs regarding family roles.
How do the New Right view the traditional nuclear family?
As ‘natural’ and based on fundamental biological differences
They see it as the cornerstone of society.
What changes in family patterns do the New Right oppose?
Cohabitation, gay marriage, and lone parenthood
They argue these changes are the cause of social problems.
What concerns do the New Right have regarding lone-parent families?
They see them as harmful to children
They believe lone mothers cannot discipline properly and boys lack male role models.
What are the three main arguments the New Right make against lone-parent families?
- Lone mothers cannot discipline properly
- Boys lack an adult male role model
- Lone-parent families are likely to be poorer
This leads to concerns about educational failure and social instability.
What did Harry Benson’s analysis reveal about family breakdown rates?
20% for cohabiting couples versus 6% for married couples
This was based on data from over 15,000 babies.
According to the New Right, what can provide a stable environment for raising children?
Marriage
They argue that marriage is essential for stability.
What is the New Right’s view on the stability of married versus cohabiting couples?
Married couples are more stable
Divorce rates among married couples are lower than breakup rates for cohabiting couples.
Why do New Right thinkers believe marriage is more stable than cohabitation?
Marriage requires a deliberate commitment
Cohabitation allows partners to avoid commitment and responsibility.
What do the New Right argue is necessary to prevent social disintegration?
A return to ‘traditional values’, including marriage
They believe this is vital for the well-being of children.
What do the New Right regard as undermining the conventional family?
- Easy access to divorce
- Gay marriage
- Widespread availability of welfare benefits
They believe these policies contribute to the breakdown of family structures.
What do Benson’s arguments suggest about government policy regarding marriage?
Government should encourage couples to marry
This can be achieved through supportive policies.
Who criticizes the New Right’s assumption about family roles?
Ann Oakley
Ann Oakley argues that the New Right wrongly assume that husbands and wives’ roles are fixed by biology.
What do cross-cultural studies show regarding family roles?
Great variation in the roles men and women perform within the family
This contradicts the New Right’s view of fixed roles.
What is Ann Oakley’s view on the New Right’s perspective of the family?
A negative reaction against the feminist campaign for women’s equality
How do feminists view the conventional nuclear family supported by the New Right?
As based on the patriarchal oppression of women
They argue it is a fundamental cause of gender inequality.
What are some effects of the conventional nuclear family according to feminists?
- Prevents women from working
- Keeps women financially dependent on men
- Denies women an equal say in decision-making
What evidence do critics of the New Right present regarding lone-parent families?
No evidence that children in lone-parent families are more likely to be delinquent than those in two-parent families of the same social class
What is the New Right’s view on marriage and cohabitation?
Marriage equals commitment, while cohabitation does not
What factors influence how individuals perceive cohabitation?
The meaning of the relationship to those involved
Some see it as a temporary phase, while others see it as a permanent alternative to marriage.
In which social groups is the rate of cohabitation higher?
Poorer social groups
What does Carol Smart argue regarding the breakdown of relationships?
It may be poverty that causes the breakdown, rather than the decision not to marry.
Who recognizes increased family diversity in recent years?
Robert Chester
Chester’s perspective is contrasted with that of the New Right.
How does Chester view the significance of family diversity?
Not very significant and not negative
Unlike the New Right, Chester does not see family diversity as a social issue.
What is the only important change identified by Chester in family structure?
A move to the ‘neo-conventional family’
This transition indicates a shift in family roles.
Define the conventional family according to Chester.
A nuclear family with a male breadwinner and female homemaker
This definition aligns with views from the New Right and Parsons.
What characterizes the neo-conventional family?
A dual-earner family where both spouses work
Similar to the symmetrical family concept by Young and Willmott.
What does Chester argue about the long-term choices of families?
Most people do not choose alternatives to the nuclear family long-term
Lone-parent families are not seen as a permanent choice.
What does Chester say about household composition statistics?
They are misleading snapshots of a single moment in time
They do not reflect the life cycle changes of individuals.
What evidence does Chester provide to support his view on family structure?
Patterns of marriage, child-rearing, and cohabitation
These patterns indicate a continued preference for the nuclear family.
List the patterns Chester identifies as evidence of stability in family structure.
- Most people live in a household headed by a married couple
- Most adults marry and have children
- Most children are reared by their two natural parents
- Most marriages continue until death
- Divorce has increased, but most divorcees remarry
- Cohabitation is often temporary before marriage
- Most births outside marriage are jointly registered
These patterns highlight the enduring nature of the nuclear family.
True or False: Chester believes that family diversity is a significant change in society.
False
Chester argues that the extent and importance of family diversity have been exaggerated.
What is the main difference between Chester’s view and that of functionalists?
Chester sees a change from a conventional to a neo-conventional nuclear family
This reflects a shift in the roles within the nuclear family.
What do Rhona and Robert Rapoport argue is central to understanding family life today?
Diversity
Rapoport and Rapoport believe that family diversity is crucial in analyzing modern family structures.
According to the Rapoports, what has Britain moved away from as the dominant family type?
Traditional nuclear family
The Rapoports argue that the traditional nuclear family is no longer the primary family structure in Britain.
What type of society do the Rapoports describe Britain as having adapted to?
Pluralistic society
A pluralistic society is characterized by diverse cultures and lifestyles.
How do the Rapoports view family diversity compared to the New Right?
As a positive response to people’s different needs
Unlike the New Right, who see diversity as abnormal, the Rapoports view it positively.
What are the five types of family diversity identified by the Rapoports?
Organisational, Cultural, Social class, Life-stage, Generational
These types reflect the various ways families can differ in structure and roles.
Fill in the blank: Organisational diversity refers to differences in the ways family _______ are organised.
roles
Organisational diversity highlights the variation in how family roles are structured.
What is an example of cultural diversity in family structures according to the Rapoports?
Higher proportion of female-headed lone-parent families among African-Caribbean households
This reflects how different cultural groups have distinct family structures.
How does social class diversity affect family structures?
Differences in income and child-rearing practices
Social class influences family dynamics and practices.
What does life-stage diversity refer to?
Differences in family structures according to the stage in the life cycle
Examples include newlyweds, couples with children, and retired couples.
True or False: Generational diversity indicates that older and younger generations have the same attitudes towards family issues.
False
Generational diversity suggests differing attitudes based on historical context.
What might older and younger generations have different views about, according to the Rapoports?
Morality of divorce or cohabitation
Attitudes towards family-related issues can vary significantly across generations.
What family type do modernist perspectives, such as functionalism, emphasize as dominant in modern society?
The nuclear family
Modernist perspectives argue that the nuclear family is the primary family type in contemporary society.
How do modernist approaches view the family?
As a structure that shapes the behavior of its members
Modernists believe that the family functions to meet societal requirements.
What is the implication of the modernist view on individual choice regarding family life?
Individuals have no real choice about the pattern of family life
This suggests that family behaviors are predictable and structured.
According to modernists, what is the nature of family behavior in society?
Orderly, structured, and predictable
Most people follow traditional patterns such as marrying and having children.
What are the five types of diversity identified by the Rapoports?
Variety in family life
The Rapoports identified different family structures that exist alongside the nuclear family.
What is the postmodernist view on family structures?
Family structures have become fragmented into many different types
Postmodernists argue that society has moved beyond the stable nuclear family.
What do postmodernists believe about the predictability of family structures?
There is no longer one single, dominant, stable family structure
They assert that society has entered a chaotic, postmodern stage.
What is a significant consequence of greater diversity and choice in family arrangements according to postmodernists?
Increased freedom to choose personal relationships
This reflects a shift towards individualized lifestyle choices.
What risk is associated with greater freedom of choice in relationships?
Greater risk of instability in relationships
The likelihood of relationships breaking up increases with more choices.
Fill in the blank: Modernist perspectives take a _______ view of the family.
structural or ‘top down’ view
This approach emphasizes the influence of family structure on individual behavior.
True or False: Postmodernists argue that society is characterized by a single family structure.
False
Postmodernists highlight a variety of family forms instead of a singular structure.
Who are the sociologists influenced by postmodernist ideas in understanding family life?
Anthony Giddens and Ulrich Beck
What is the term used to describe Giddens and Beck’s views on the effects of individual choice on families and relationships?
Individualisation thesis
What does the individualisation thesis argue about traditional social structures?
They have lost much of their influence over us
In the past, how were people’s lives defined according to the individualisation thesis?
By fixed roles
What were individuals in the past expected to do regarding marriage and gender roles?
Everyone was expected to marry and take up their appropriate gender role
What has replaced the ‘standard biography’ in today’s society according to Beck?
‘Do-it-yourself biography’
What does being ‘disembedded’ from traditional roles mean in the context of the individualisation thesis?
Having more freedom to choose how we lead our lives
True or False: The individualisation thesis suggests that individuals today have more fixed roles to follow than in the past.
False
According to Giddens and Beck, what has huge implications for family relationships and diversity?
The change in individual choice and disembedding from traditional structures
What holds relationships together in today’s society according to Giddens?
Individual choice and equality
Giddens argues that traditional institutions like law, religion, and social norms no longer bind relationships.
How does Giddens describe the type of relationships prevalent in late modern society?
The ‘pure relationship’
This concept reflects a shift away from traditional norms.
What is the key feature of the pure relationship?
It exists solely to satisfy each partner’s needs
The relationship is maintained as long as it serves the interests of both partners.
What motivates couples to stay together in a pure relationship?
Love, happiness, or sexual attraction
Couples are not motivated by tradition, duty, or children.
What freedom do individuals have regarding relationships in modern society?
The freedom to choose to enter and leave relationships
This choice is part of the individual’s self-discovery and identity.
What impact does increased choice have on personal relationships according to Giddens?
Relationships become less stable
The pure relationship is described as a ‘rolling contract’ that can be ended at will.
What types of family structures does the pure relationship contribute to?
More lone-parent families, one-person households, stepfamilies
This reflects greater family diversity resulting from less stable relationships.
What term does Beck use to describe the family in modern society?
‘Zombie category’
This term reflects the idea that while families seem functional, they are actually facing significant challenges and instability.
What do people hope to find in family relationships?
Security
In an uncertain risk society, individuals often look to family as a source of safety.
What paradox is described regarding family relationships in today’s society?
Families are subject to greater risk and uncertainty than ever before
This indicates that families, while desired to be safe havens, are increasingly unstable.
Fill in the blank: Beck describes the family as a _______ category.
zombie
The ‘zombie’ metaphor suggests a disconnection between appearance and reality.
True or False: The modern family is able to provide security in an insecure world.
False
The text states that today’s family cannot provide the security that people seek.
What is the primary reason families are considered ‘zombie categories’?
Their own instability
Families are perceived as alive but are fundamentally struggling with internal issues.
What can the actions and policies of governments profoundly affect?
Families and their members
What does China’s one-child policy aim to discourage?
Couples from having more than one child
Who supervises the enforcement of China’s one-child policy?
Workplace family planning committees
What benefits do couples receive for complying with China’s one-child policy?
- Free child healthcare
- Higher tax allowances
What must couples who break their agreement to have only one child repay?
Allowances and pay a fine
What extreme measures did the former communist government of Romania take to increase the birth rate?
- Restricted contraception and abortion
- Set up infertility treatment centres
- Made divorce more difficult
- Lowered the legal age of marriage to 15
- Imposed extra 5% income tax on unmarried adults and childless couples
What was one policy pursued by the Nazi regime in Germany regarding childbirth?
Encouraged the healthy and supposedly ‘racially pure’ to breed a ‘master race’
What was the fate of the 375,000 disabled people sterilised by the Nazi regime?
Many were later murdered in Nazi concentration camps
In democratic societies, how do some people view the role of the family?
As a private sphere of life with little government intervention
True or False: Sociologists believe that the state’s social policies do not significantly influence family life in democratic societies.
False
What historical period did the Romanian government’s policies to increase birth rates occur?
1980s
Fill in the blank: In Nazi Germany, official policy sought to keep women out of the workforce and confine them to _______.
[children, kitchen and church]
What was a consequence for an only child in China under the one-child policy?
Priority in education and housing later in life
What did the Romanian government lower to encourage early marriages?
The legal age of marriage to 15
What were some of the reasons cited by the Nazi regime for sterilising individuals?
- Physical malformation
- Mental retardation
- Epilepsy
- Imbecility
- Deafness
- Blindness
What do functionalists see as the foundation of society?
Harmony and consensus (shared values)
Functionalists believe society is built on shared values and is free from major conflicts.
How do functionalists view the role of the state?
As acting in the interests of society as a whole
Functionalists believe that social policies are designed for the good of all members of society.
What is Ronald Fletcher’s argument regarding social policies?
They have led to the development of a welfare state supporting family functions
Fletcher argues that health, education, and housing policies since the industrial revolution have helped families.
How does the National Health Service assist families according to functionalists?
It helps families take care of sick members
The NHS provides access to doctors, nurses, hospitals, and medicines.
What is one criticism of the functionalist view regarding social policies?
It assumes all family members benefit equally
Feminists argue that policies often favor men at the expense of women.
What is the second criticism of the functionalist view?
It assumes a ‘march of progress’ in social policies
Marxists argue that policies can reverse previous progress, such as cutting welfare benefits.
Fill in the blank: Functionalists believe that social policies help families to perform their functions more _______.
effectively
This reflects the functionalist perspective on the role of policies in society.
What perspective does Jacques Donzelot offer on the relationship between the family and state policies?
A conflict view of society, seeing policy as a form of state power and control over families.
Donzelot contrasts his view with the functionalists, who see policy as beneficial to the family.
Which theorist’s concepts does Donzelot utilize to explain his views on family surveillance?
Michel Foucault’s concepts of surveillance.
Foucault’s idea of power being diffused throughout society and present in relationships is central to Donzelot’s argument.
How does Foucault view professionals such as doctors and social workers in relation to power?
As exercising power over their clients by using expert knowledge to categorize them as ‘cases’.
This categorization allows professionals to exert control and influence over individuals.
What term does Donzelot use to describe the control and monitoring of families by professionals?
‘The policing of families’.
This concept highlights the role of professionals in surveilling and attempting to change family dynamics.
Are all social classes targeted equally by surveillance according to Donzelot?
No, poor families are more likely to be seen as ‘problem’ families.
These families are often targeted for intervention and improvement by professionals.
What example does Rachel Condry provide regarding state control over family life?
Compulsory Parenting Orders imposed through the courts.
Parents of young offenders or truants may be forced to attend parenting classes.
What does Donzelot reject about the functionalists’ view of social policy?
The idea that social policy has created a better, freer, or more humane society.
He argues that social policy is a form of state control over the family.
What level of analysis does Donzelot focus on to illustrate how caring professions act as agents of social control?
The micro level.
This focus reveals the significance of professional knowledge as a form of power.
What criticisms do Marxists and feminists have of Donzelot’s views?
They criticize him for not clearly identifying who benefits from surveillance policies.
Marxists argue these policies benefit the capitalist class, while feminists argue that men are the main beneficiaries.
What is the New Right’s view on welfare policy?
It is critical, arguing that it undermines the conventional nuclear family.
According to Charles Murray, what are ‘perverse incentives’ in welfare benefits?
They reward irresponsible or anti-social behaviour.
What does Murray argue happens when fathers see the state supporting their children?
Some will abandon their responsibilities towards their families.
How does providing council housing for unmarried teenage mothers affect young girls?
It encourages them to become pregnant.
What is one consequence of the growth of lone-parent families according to the New Right?
More boys grow up without a male role model and authority figure.
What is linked to the lack of paternal authority in families?
A rising crime rate among young males.
What impact does social policy have on family roles and relationships according to the New Right?
It encourages a dependency culture.
What are the two essential functions of the family that are threatened by dependency culture?
- Successful socialisation of the young
- Maintenance of the work ethic among men.
Fill in the blank: The New Right believes that current welfare policies encourage a _______ culture.
[dependency]
True or False: The New Right supports generous welfare benefits as a means of strengthening family structures.
False
What is the impact of tax and benefits policies on women’s economic independence?
They reinforce women’s economic dependence on their husbands by assuming husbands are the main wage-earners
This makes it difficult for wives to claim social security benefits independently.
How does childcare policy affect women’s employment?
Government-funded childcare is insufficient for parents to work full-time, leading to women’s economic dependence on partners
Additional costs for childcare can restrict mothers from full-time work.
What is the societal expectation regarding care for the sick and elderly?
Government policies generally assume that families, particularly middle-aged women, will provide this care
This expectation often prevents these women from working full-time.
How do maternity leave policies reinforce patriarchal family structures?
Maternity leave is more generous than paternity leave, promoting the idea that mothers are primarily responsible for infant care
This reinforces traditional gender roles within the family.
What is the economic impact of maternity benefits on mothers?
Maternity benefits are low, increasing mothers’ economic dependence on their partners
This can limit their financial independence.
Who typically receives child benefit, and what assumption does this create?
Child benefit is usually paid to the mother, assuming she is primarily responsible for the child’s welfare
This reinforces traditional gender roles in family responsibilities.
What conclusion can be drawn about social policies and family roles?
Social policies help create and maintain patriarchal roles by facilitating women’s responsibilities in family care and assuming men’s role as providers
This highlights the influence of policy on the social construction of family dynamics.
True or False: Social policies can act as a form of social control over women.
True
Policies that appear supportive may still reinforce traditional family structures.
