Beliefs Flashcards
What are the three main ways sociologists define religion?
Substantive, functional, and social constructionist
Each definition focuses on different aspects of religion.
What do substantive definitions of religion focus on?
The content or substance of religious belief
This includes beliefs in God or the supernatural.
Who defined religion as belief in a superior or supernatural power that cannot be explained scientifically?
Max Weber
This definition is part of substantive definitions.
What is a criticism of substantive definitions of religion?
They are exclusive and may have a Western bias
They exclude religions like Buddhism that do not fit the Western notion of a god.
What do functional definitions of religion emphasize?
The social or psychological functions religion performs
This includes contributions to social integration.
According to Emile Durkheim, what is a key contribution of religion to society?
Social integration
He focuses on the role of religion in maintaining order and solidarity.
What is the main feature of religion according to Durkheim?
The distinction between the sacred and the profane
Sacred things inspire awe, while profane things are ordinary.
What does Durkheim mean by the term ‘collective conscience’?
Shared norms, values, beliefs, and knowledge in society
It is essential for social life and cooperation.
What is the essence of all religion according to Durkheim’s study of totemism?
Worship of a sacred totem that symbolizes the clan
This reinforces group solidarity and identity.
How does Durkheim view the role of rituals in religion?
Rituals reinforce collective conscience and social integration
They bind individuals into a moral community.
What cognitive functions does Durkheim attribute to religion?
It provides categories necessary for reasoning and understanding
Categories like time, space, and cause originate from religious thought.
What criticism did Worsley (1956) make regarding Durkheim’s theory of totemism?
There is no sharp division between the sacred and the profane
Different clans may share the same totems.
What are the two types of situations in which Malinowski argues religion helps individuals cope?
Uncontrollable outcomes and life crises
For example, rituals for dangerous fishing or funerals.
What additional functions of religion does Talcott Parsons identify?
- Creates and legitimates society’s central values
- Provides a primary source of meaning
Religion sacralizes norms and answers ultimate questions.
What concept does Robert Bellah introduce to describe how religion can unify a multi-faith society?
Civil religion
In America, this involves loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in God.
What are functional alternatives to religion?
Non-religious beliefs and practices that perform similar functions
Examples include secular political beliefs.
What is a key criticism of functionalism regarding religion?
It neglects negative aspects such as oppression and conflict
It overlooks division in pluralistic societies.
How does Marx view religion in relation to class conflict?
As an ideology that legitimizes the exploitation of the working class
Religion distorts reality and creates false consciousness.
What term does Lenin use to describe religion?
‘Spiritual gin’
He views it as an intoxicant that distracts from social issues.
What does religion mislead the poor into believing?
That their suffering is virtuous and they will be favoured in the afterlife
For example, Christianity states it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven.
Who described religion as ‘spiritual gin’?
Lenin
Lenin viewed religion as an intoxicant that confuses the masses and prevents them from overthrowing the ruling class.
What is the Divine Right of Kings?
The belief that the king is God’s representative on earth and is owed total obedience
Disobedience is viewed as a sinful challenge to God’s authority.
What concept does Marx associate with religion?
Alienation
Alienation involves losing control over what one has produced, especially under capitalism.
How does Marx describe religion?
“The opium of the people”
It is a consolation that masks the pain of exploitation without addressing its causes.
What does religion legitimize according to Marx?
The suffering of the poor and the privileges of the ruling class.
What positive functions of religion does Marx overlook?
Psychological adjustment to misfortune.
What do feminists argue about religion?
That it is a patriarchal institution perpetuating inequality.
What evidence suggests patriarchy in religious organizations?
Male dominance in leadership positions
For example, Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women from becoming priests.
What does Jean Holm describe as the devaluation of women in religion?
Menstruating women being prohibited from touching the Qur’an.
What significant historical shift regarding women’s roles in religion does Karen Armstrong discuss?
The rise of male-dominated monotheistic religions.
What is one way women may use religion to gain empowerment?
Participation in religious activities like Bible study groups.
What are ‘piety movements’?
Conservative movements supporting traditional teachings about women’s roles
They include Pentecostal and evangelical groups.
What is the role of liberal Protestant organizations regarding gender equality?
They often promote gender equality and include women in leadership roles.
What did Max Weber study in relation to religion and capitalism?
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
What is ‘asceticism’ in Calvinist beliefs?
Abstinence, self-discipline, and self-denial.
What is the significance of the concept of ‘vocation’ in Calvinism?
It refers to constant, methodical work in an occupation as a religious duty.
What does Weber argue about the relationship between Calvinism and capitalism?
Calvinism was one of the causes of modern capitalism.
What are the two consequences of Calvinists’ hard work and asceticism?
- Rise of Capitalism- profits reinvested > growth of capitalism.
- Accumulation of wealth- Hard work + minimal spending > wealth builds up.
What does Weber argue about Hinduism and Confucianism in relation to capitalism?
Both lack the drive to systematically accumulate wealth necessary for modern capitalism.
What is the main critique of Weber’s argument by Marxists?
He overestimates the role of ideas and underestimates economic factors in the rise of capitalism.
What cultural factors did Weber argue were necessary for capitalism to emerge?
The beliefs and values of Calvinism
Weber suggested that both material and cultural factors must be present.
Who criticized Weber for overestimating the role of ideas in the emergence of capitalism?
Karl Kautsky
Kautsky argued that capitalism preceded Calvinism.
What did R.H. Tawney argue was the cause of the birth of capitalism?
Technological change
Tawney believed that capitalism did not develop solely due to religious ideas.
What was a significant criticism of Weber’s theory regarding Calvinism and capitalism?
Capitalism did not develop in every country with Calvinists
For example, Scotland had a large Calvinist population but was slow to develop capitalism.
What did Gordon Marshall argue about the development of capitalism in Calvinist regions?
Lack of investment capital and skilled labor
This supports Weber’s argument that both material and cultural factors are necessary.
According to some critics, why did Calvinists become successful capitalists?
They were excluded by law from political office and many professions
This led them to turn to business as an alternative.
What role did the Black clergy play in the civil rights movement?
They were the backbone of the movement
They provided support, moral legitimacy, and meeting places.
What event sparked the beginning of the civil rights movement in 1955?
Rosa Parks refusing to sit at the back of a bus
This act of defiance became a symbol of the movement.
How did Bruce describe religion in the context of the civil rights movement?
As an ideological resource
It provided beliefs and practices for motivation and support.
What is the primary aim of the New Christian Right?
To take America ‘back to God’
They oppose liberalization of society, including issues like abortion and gay marriage.
What media strategy has the New Christian Right effectively used?
Televangelism
Church-owned television stations raise funds and recruit new members.
What are some reasons for the New Christian Right’s lack of success?
- Difficulty cooperating with other religious groups
- Lack of widespread support
- Strong opposition from freedom of choice advocates
Bruce describes it as a failed movement for change.
What is Ernst Bloch’s view on religion’s role in social change?
It has a dual character
Religion can inhibit change but also inspire protest and rebellion.
What was liberation theology’s primary goal?
To change society by supporting the poor
It emerged in response to military dictatorships in Latin America.
What factors led to the emergence of liberation theology?
- Deepening rural poverty
- Human rights abuses
- Commitment among priests to support the poor
These factors motivated a shift in the Catholic Church’s approach.
What was Pope John Paul II’s stance on liberation theology?
He condemned it for resembling Marxism
He directed priests to focus on pastoral activities rather than political struggle.
How does David Lehmann contrast liberation theology and Pentecostalism?
- Liberation theology: community consciousness and political action
- Pentecostalism: individual self-improvement through private efforts
This highlights the different approaches to addressing poverty.
What do millenarian movements expect?
Total and imminent transformation of the world
They promise a collective salvation and a heaven on earth.
What is Gramsci’s concept of hegemony?
Ideological domination or leadership of society
It allows the ruling class to maintain control with popular consent.
According to Dwight Billings, what three ways does religion interact with employer hegemony?
- Leadership
- Organisation
- Support
These factors influenced the level of militancy among coalminers compared to textile workers.
What conclusion does Billings reach about the role of religion?
Religion can play a prominent oppositional role
It can defend the status quo or justify the struggle to change it.
What percentage of the adult population attended church on Sundays by 2020?
About 4%
This indicates a significant decline from previous decades.
What was the decline in Sunday attendance in the Church of England from 1960 to 2020?
From 1.6 million to under 0.7 million
This illustrates a dramatic decrease in church attendance.
What trend has been observed in church weddings from 1971 to 2018?
The proportion of weddings in church fell from 59% to 20%
This highlights a decline in religious ceremonies.
What phenomenon is referred to as ‘bogus baptisms’?
Increased baptisms of older children due to school admissions policies
Many faith schools only accept baptized children, turning baptism into an entry ticket.
What has been the trend in religious affiliation from 1983 to 2018?
The proportion of adults with no religion rose from under a third to just over half
This indicates a significant shift in religious identification.
By how much did the number of adults identifying as Christian fall between 1983 and 2018?
By 40%
The decline was sharpest among Anglicans, who fell by almost three quarters.
What has happened to the number of Catholics in the UK since 1983?
Increased slightly due to East European immigration
This contrasts with the general decline in Christian affiliation.
What has been the trend for ‘Other Christians’ since 1983?
Remained static at 17% of the population
However, attachment to specific denominations has decreased significantly.
What evidence shows the decline in religious beliefs over the past 80 years?
Surveys indicate a decline in belief in a personal god, Jesus as the son of God, and Christian teachings
This decline parallels the decrease in church attendance and membership.
What does rationalisation refer to in the context of secularisation?
The process by which rational ways of thinking and acting replace religious ones.
Who is the sociologist most associated with the concept of rationalisation?
Max Weber.
What event did Max Weber argue initiated the process of rationalisation in the West?
The Protestant Reformation begun by Martin Luther in the 16th century.
How did the Protestant Reformation change the worldview of the medieval Catholic Church?
It replaced the interventionist God with a transcendent God who does not intervene in the world.
What term describes the process of the world losing its magical and religious explanations according to Weber?
Disenchantment.
What is a technological worldview?
A perspective that replaces religious or supernatural explanations with scientific and technological ones.
According to Bruce, how has the growth of a technological worldview impacted religion?
It has reduced the scope for religious explanations in everyday life.
What does Talcott Parsons define as structural differentiation?
A process of specialisation where separate institutions develop to perform functions previously carried out by a single institution.
What is the effect of structural differentiation on religion, according to Parsons?
It leads to the disengagement of religion from wider society.
What does the term privatisation refer to in the context of religion?
The confinement of religion to the private sphere of the home and family.
How has industrialisation contributed to the decline of religion?
It has led to the decline of community and the rise of diverse beliefs and values.
What is the ‘sacred canopy’ concept introduced by Berger?
A shared set of beliefs under which everyone lived, providing a unified worldview.
What crisis does religious diversity create, according to Berger?
A crisis of credibility for religion, undermining its plausibility structure.
What does Bruce identify as two counter-trends against secularisation?
- Cultural defence
- Cultural transition
What is ‘believing without belonging’ as described by Grace Davie?
The phenomenon where individuals hold religious beliefs without belonging to an organized religion.
What does Davie mean by ‘vicarious religion’?
Religion practiced by an active minority on behalf of the majority, who experience it second hand.
What evidence suggests that church attendance figures may be exaggerated?
Studies found that self-reported attendance was significantly higher than actual attendance counts.
What does Bruce argue about the future of religion in the context of secularisation?
That religion survives primarily when it serves functions other than relating individuals to the supernatural.
According to Bruce, what has happened to traditional religious morality in America?
It has become less strict and more aligned with personal improvement and therapy.
True or False: Secularisation theory claims that religion is universally declining.
True.
What criticism do opponents of secularisation theory make regarding the past?
They argue that the past was not a ‘golden age’ of faith from which we have declined.
What term does Davie use to describe the phenomenon of people holding religious beliefs without actively participating in religious institutions?
Believing without belonging
This concept highlights that many individuals identify with religious beliefs while not attending services regularly.
What is vicarious religion?
Religion practiced by an active minority on behalf of the majority
This term describes how a small group of clergy and regular attendees engage in religious practices for the larger population.
How does Davie compare major national churches in Europe?
As public utilities or a ‘Spiritual Health Service’
This analogy suggests that churches provide essential services for rites of passage and communal mourning.
What does Davie argue lies beneath the surface of low church attendance?
A wider commitment to the church as an institution
Many people still feel attached to the church and its rituals despite not attending regularly.
What do Voas and Crockett (2005) argue regarding belief and church attendance?
Both are declining together
Their evidence suggests that if belief were stronger, church attendance would not be declining at the same rate.
According to Abby Day (2007), why do some people identify as Christian?
As a marker of ethnic or national identity, not religious belief
Day found that many self-identified Christians do not actively engage with Christian beliefs.
What does Daniele Hervieu-Léger attribute to the decline of institutional religion?
Cultural amnesia and loss of collective memory
This reflects a shift where parents no longer pass down religious beliefs to their children.
What term describes individuals who follow their own spiritual paths, according to Hervieu-Léger?
Pilgrims
These individuals engage in personal exploration and self-discovery, often through New Age practices.
What do converts seek in their religious affiliations?
A strong sense of belonging
Converts are often drawn to communities that share a common ethnic background or religious doctrine.
What is the impact of globalisation on religion in postmodern society?
Increased interconnectedness and movement of ideas
Globalisation facilitates the exchange of religious beliefs across borders, altering traditional practices.
What are the two types of internet activity in relation to religion, according to Helland (2000)?
Religion online and online religion
Religion online is top-down communication, while online religion allows for community building and interaction.
What concept describes individuals constructing their identities through consumption?
Religious consumerism
This reflects how individuals choose and mix religious beliefs to align with personal preferences.
What is self-religion or self-spirituality in the context of New Age beliefs?
Emphasis on individual discovery and autonomy
New Age spirituality encourages personal exploration rather than adherence to traditional authority.
What does Lyon argue is occurring instead of a decline in religion?
A re-enchantment of the world
Lyon suggests that unconventional beliefs and practices are revitalizing spirituality.
What is the main criticism of the New Age movement according to Bruce?
It lacks the scale necessary to replace traditional religions
The New Age movement’s impact is limited compared to the historical attendance of traditional churches.
What did Heelas and Woodhead (2005) find regarding attendance in Kendal?
7.9% attended church and 1.6% engaged in holistic activities
Their study indicates a decline in traditional religiosity alongside a modest growth in New Age spirituality.
What are the two groups identified by Heelas and Woodhead in their study?
- Congregational domain of traditional Christianity
- Holistic milieu of spirituality and New Age
These groups represent differing approaches to spirituality and traditional religious practices.
What is the likelihood of transmitting New Age beliefs to children in families where the mother is in the holistic milieu?
Low
At least three-quarters of marriages with a woman in the holistic milieu have husbands who do not share these beliefs.
What did Glendinning and Bruce (2006) find regarding commitment to New Age beliefs?
Serious commitment is very rare
Many people dabble in practices like meditation and astrology, but few consider them important.
What is a characteristic of New Age spirituality that contributes to its structural weakness?
Subjective, individualistic nature
It lacks a higher authority and cannot achieve consensus about beliefs.
Who are the main advocates of religious market theory?
Stark and Bainbridge
They criticize secularisation theory for its Eurocentrism.
What are the two assumptions of religious market theory proposed by Stark and Bainbridge?
- People are naturally religious and religion meets human needs
- People seek rewards and avoid costs
What do Stark and Bainbridge mean by ‘compensators’ in religion?
Religion provides promises of supernatural rewards when real rewards are scarce
For example, promises of immortality or life after death.
What alternative concept do Stark and Bainbridge propose to secularisation theory?
Cycle of religious decline, revival, and renewal
This concept highlights the ongoing fluctuations in religious adherence throughout history.
How do Stark and Bainbridge view competition among churches?
They see it as beneficial, leading to improvements in the quality of religious offerings
Churches that attract more ‘customers’ succeed.
What is the relationship between supply and demand in Stark and Bainbridge’s theory?
Supply influences the level of religious participation more than demand
Participation increases with a greater supply of religious options.
What do Hadden and Shupe (1988) argue about televangelism in America?
It shows that religious participation is supply-led
The rise of televangelism responded to consumer demand.
What did Gill and Lundegaarde (2004) find regarding state welfare and religious participation?
Higher welfare spending correlates with lower levels of religious participation
European countries spend more on welfare than the USA.
What do Norris and Inglehart argue is the reason for variations in religiosity between societies?
Different degrees of existential security
Societies with higher security tend to have lower levels of religiosity.
What are some characteristics of fundamentalism?
- An authoritative sacred text
- ‘Us and them’ mentality
- Aggressive reaction
- Use of modern technology
- Patriarchy
- Prophecy
- Conspiracy theories
What does the ‘us and them’ mentality in fundamentalism refer to?
Separation from the rest of the world and refusal to compromise
Fundamentalists establish certainty against perceived chaos.
According to Aldridge (2013), what is the nature of fundamentalist interpretations of sacred texts?
They interpret texts literally and refuse other interpretations
This leads to an inerrant view of texts like the Bible.
What role does modern technology play in fundamentalism?
Fundamentalists use technology to achieve their aims despite opposing modern culture
This includes the use of the internet and televangelism.
How do Norris and Inglehart explain the religious landscape in America compared to Europe?
America is more religious due to higher inequality and insecurity
In contrast, Europe has well-developed welfare states that reduce insecurity.
What do critics argue about religious market theory?
It oversimplifies the relationship between diversity, competition, and demand for religion
Critics like Bruce and Beckford highlight flaws in its assumptions.
What is the significance of prophecy in Christian fundamentalism?
It relates biblical prophecies to contemporary events and predicts the ‘last days’
Fundamentalists believe in events like the resurrection and the War of Armageddon.
What is fundamentalism according to the text?
A reaction by those with traditional beliefs feeling threatened by modernity
Fundamentalism arises from the clash between modernity and traditional cultures.
Who argues that fundamentalism is a product of globalization?
Giddens (1999)
Globalization undermines traditional social norms related to family, gender, and sexuality.
What does Giddens identify as a key attraction of fundamentalism?
The certainty it promises in an uncertain world
Fundamentalism offers faith-based answers amid the risks of globalization.
How does Giddens contrast fundamentalism with cosmopolitanism?
Cosmopolitanism embraces modernity and is tolerant of others’ views
Cosmopolitanism involves reflexive thinking and justifying views with rational arguments.
What are the two types of identity responses to postmodernity identified by Manuel Castells?
- Resistance identity
- Project identity
Resistance identity retreats into fundamentalist communities, while project identity engages with social movements.
What is Beckford’s criticism of Giddens’ view on fundamentalism?
He argues there is too sharp a distinction between cosmopolitanism and fundamentalism
Beckford believes important hybrid movements are ignored.
What does Jeff Haynes argue about Islamic fundamentalism?
It shouldn’t be seen solely as a reaction against globalization
Local elite failures in the Middle East often fuel fundamentalism.
What does Steve Bruce say about the scope of fundamentalism?
It is confined to monotheistic religions
Bruce distinguishes between monotheistic and polytheistic religions in terms of fundamentalism.
What is one characteristic that all fundamentalists share?
Belief in the literal truth of a sacred text
Fundamentalists detest modernity and adhere to strict interpretations.
In what context does religious fundamentalism typically arise in the West?
As a reaction to societal changes and diversity
Example: The New Christian Right opposing family diversity and secularism.
What major societal changes trigger fundamentalism in developing countries?
Changes imposed by modernization and globalization
Example: The Islamic revolution in Iran was a response to external pressures.
According to Davie, what are the two phases of modernity?
- Religious fundamentalism phase (late 18th century to 1960s)
- Secular fundamentalism phase (since 1970s)
The second phase reflects growing pessimism and uncertainty in modern society.
What is secular fundamentalism as described by Davie?
A reaction to the loss of faith in secular ideologies
This includes nationalism that justifies ethnic cleansing under the guise of cultural identity.
What does Huntington argue about religious differences?
They are a major source of conflict due to globalization
He identifies seven civilizations and claims religious differences create hostile ‘us and them’ relationships.
What is Jackson’s criticism of Huntington’s work?
It exemplifies orientalism, stereotyping Eastern nations
This ideology justifies exploitation and human rights abuses by the West.
What do Inglehart and Norris conclude about the divide between the West and the Muslim world?
The real divide is over attitudes toward gender and sexuality
While support for democracy is high in both, views on self-expression vary significantly.
How did the Catholic Church play a role in Polish identity during communism?
It served as a rallying point against Soviet rule
The Church supported the Solidarity movement in the 1980s.
What led to the Iranian revolution of 1979?
Resistance to rapid modernization and Westernization imposed by the Shah
Clerics led the revolution, establishing an Islamic Republic.
How does Meera Nanda’s work relate Hinduism to globalization?
Hinduism legitimates the rise of ultra-nationalism and middle-class prosperity
Despite predictions, many in the educated middle class remain religious.
What was the finding of the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies survey in 2007?
Most Indians reported an increase in religiosity
Only 5% said their religiosity had declined in the last five years.
What percentage of Indians reported becoming more religious according to the 2007 survey?
30%
The survey was conducted by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies.
What phenomenon has seen dramatic growth as a reflection of increased interest in religion?
Religious tourism
This includes visits to shrines and temples.
What does Nanda argue is a motivation for the urban middle class’s increasing religiosity?
Ambivalence about newfound wealth
This ambivalence arises from the tension between traditional Hindu beliefs and new prosperity.
Which belief system does Gordon Redding associate with the spirit of capitalism among Chinese entrepreneurs?
Post-Confucian values
These values include hard work, self-discipline, frugality, and a commitment to education.
According to Peter Berger, what does Pentecostalism act as in Latin America?
Functional equivalent to Weber’s Protestant ethic
It encourages a work ethic and lifestyle similar to Calvinism.
What are the two phases of Christianity’s globalisation as described by David Lehmann?
- Accompanied colonisation and imposed on indigenous populations
- Spread due to gaining a popular following from below.
What is a key characteristic of world-rejecting new religious movements (NRMs)?
Highly critical of the outside world
They expect or seek radical change and require members to make a sharp break with their former life.
What type of religious organisation is described as having a bureaucratic hierarchy and claiming a monopoly of truth?
Church
Examples include the Catholic Church.
What is the primary focus of world-accommodating NRMs?
Religious rather than worldly matters
They seek to restore the spiritual purity of religion.
What distinguishes audience cults from other types of cults?
They are the least organised and do not involve formal membership
Participation may occur through media interactions.
What is the main difference between sects and cults according to Stark and Bainbridge?
Sects result from schisms in existing organisations, while cults are new religions
Sects promise other-worldly benefits, while cults offer this-worldly benefits.
What do world-affirming NRMs promise their followers?
Success in terms of mainstream goals and values
They are optimistic and non-exclusive.
What phenomenon does Nanda note is becoming fashionable among the middle class?
Being religious
This includes being seen as religious.
How do modern holy men and tele-gurus help the middle class reconcile their consumerism?
They preach that desire is a manifestation of divinity
This helps alleviate guilt associated with materialism.
What is a common feature of world-affirming NRMs?
They offer access to spiritual or supernatural powers
They may lack conventional features of religion like collective worship.
What did the Pew Global Attitude Survey reveal about Indian nationalism and Hindu values?
93% of Indians believe their culture is superior to others
This belief is linked to Hindu ultra-nationalism.
What is the nature of the relationship between Hinduism and the Indian state as noted in the text?
Hinduism has increasingly penetrated public life
This includes teaching ‘Hindu sciences’ in universities.
What is the defining characteristic of cultic movements according to Wallis?
They are the most organised and demand a higher level of commitment
They aim to meet all aspects of members’ lives.
What do denominations accept that sects and churches do not?
Many valid interpretations of faith
Denominations are tolerant of other religious organisations.
What type of cult involves little interaction between members and minimal commitment?
Audience cults
Examples include astrology and UFO cults.
What are client cults based on?
The relationship between a consultant and a client
They provide services to followers, often emphasizing therapies for personal fulfillment and self-discovery.
What is a key characteristic of cultic movements?
Higher level of commitment than other cults
Cultic movements aim to meet all religious needs of their members and usually do not allow membership in other religious groups.
Give an example of a cultic movement.
The Moonies
Some client cults, like Scientology, evolved from previous client cults.
What distinguishes cultic movements from audience and client cults?
Cultic movements rarely allow members to belong to other religious groups
This is in contrast to audience and client cults.
What is an example of a well-publicized doomsday cult?
Cultic movements predicting the end of the world
These cults may practice mass suicide.
What concept do Stark and Bainbridge use to distinguish between organizations?
Degree of conflict with wider society
This is similar to Troeltsch’s distinction between church (accepts society) and sect (rejects society).
True or False: Client cults focus primarily on community interaction.
False
Client cults focus on the relationship between consultant and client.
Fill in the blank: Audience cults do not involve formal membership or much _______.
commitment
What has shifted in the emphasis of client cults over time?
From medical miracles and contact with the dead to therapies for personal fulfillment
This reflects a change in focus towards self-discovery.
According to Troeltsch, who do sects tend to draw their members from?
The poor and oppressed
What term describes the subjective sense of being deprived?
Relative deprivation
What does Weber’s concept of theodicy of disprivilege refer to?
A religious explanation and justification for suffering and disadvantage
Provide an example of a sect that recruited from marginalized groups in the 20th century.
The Nation of Islam
True or False: Since the 1960s, sect-like NRMs such as the Moonies have mainly recruited from affluent groups.
True
What do Stark and Bainbridge argue about relatively deprived individuals?
They are likely to break away from churches to form sects
Fill in the blank: Sects offer compensators that the _______ need for the rewards they are denied in this world.
Deprived
What social phenomenon does Wilson argue disrupts established norms and values?
Rapid social change
What historical event did Methodism respond to in its growth?
The industrial revolution in Britain
According to Bruce, what has led to the growth of cults in modern society?
Modernisation and secularisation
What is Niebuhr’s view on the lifespan of sects?
Sects are short-lived and either die out or become a denomination
List the four stages of the sectarian cycle according to Stark and Bainbridge.
- Schism
- Initial fervour
- Denominationalism
- Establishment
What is the final stage of the sectarian cycle?
Further schism resulting in the formation of a new sect
What is a key characteristic of New Age beliefs?
Self-spirituality and detraditionalisation
Who estimates that there are about 2,000 New Age activities in the UK?
Heelas
What has caused people to lose faith in meta-narratives according to John Drane?
Disillusionment with science and traditional authorities
What does Bruce argue about the growth of the New Age?
It is a feature of the latest phase of modern society
List the four ways Heelas links the New Age to modernity.
- A source of identity
- Consumer culture creates dissatisfaction
- Rapid social change leads to anomie
- Decline of organised religion
What demographic difference is noted in religiosity in the UK?
Gender differences
According to the British Social Attitudes Survey 2018, what percentage of women say they have a religion?
54%
What is one reason sociologists suggest for women’s higher levels of religiosity?
Risk-taking behavior
True or False: Women express less interest in religion compared to men.
False
Who argues that women have a stronger personal commitment to religion?
Miller and Hoffman
What are the three main reasons for women’s higher levels of religiosity according to Miller and Hoffman?
- Gender differences in risk-taking
- Socialization to be passive, obedient, and caring
- Gender roles allowing more time for religious activities
These reasons highlight how societal expectations and personal characteristics influence religious participation among genders.
How does the perception of risk influence men’s and women’s religiosity?
Men are less risk-averse than women, making them more likely to take the risk of not being religious.
This perspective suggests that women’s higher religiosity may be partly due to their greater caution regarding existential risks.
What role does socialization play in women’s religiosity?
Women are socialized to be more passive, obedient, and caring, qualities valued by most religions.
This socialization may lead to a greater attraction to religious practices and communities.
What is the impact of women’s gender roles on their participation in religious activities?
Women are more likely to work part-time or be full-time carers, allowing more time for religious activities.
This flexibility in time management can lead to increased involvement in religious practices.
How do women’s roles in caring for family members affect their religiosity?
Their responsibility for family welfare increases women’s religiosity as it brings them closer to ‘ultimate’ questions about life.
This involvement in caregiving roles connects women to the deeper existential themes often addressed in religious contexts.
What are the differences in how men and women perceive God?
Men are more likely to see a God of power and control, while women tend to see a God of love and forgiveness.
This difference in perception may influence the way each gender relates to religious beliefs.
What is the ‘decline of female piety’ as described by Callum Brown?
The decline of female piety refers to women’s withdrawal from religion as they take on secular, masculinized roles in the public sphere of paid work.
This shift indicates changing gender dynamics and the impact of women’s roles on religiosity.
What makes religion attractive to women according to Woodhead?
Religion emphasizes values such as caring for others, which aligns with women’s primary roles in caregiving.
This attraction may be reinforced by the feminization of churches, which focus on relationships and community support.
What percentage of participants in the holistic milieu in Kendal were found to be female?
80%
This statistic highlights the significant involvement of women in New Age movements.
What are the three types of deprivation that explain higher sect membership among women according to Bruce?
- Organismic deprivation
- Ethical deprivation
- Social deprivation
These forms of deprivation are more common among women, leading to greater participation in sects.
What is the ‘Pentecostal gender paradox’?
The paradox refers to why a conservative patriarchal religion like Pentecostalism is attractive to women.
This contradiction arises from how women can leverage Pentecostal beliefs to improve their social standing despite the religion’s patriarchal structure.
What role does religion play for minority ethnic groups in the UK?
Religion offers support and a sense of cultural identity in an uncertain or hostile environment.
This aspect of religion serves as cultural defense and transition for immigrants adapting to new societies.
What is the relationship between age and religious participation?
The older a person is, the more likely they are to attend religious services.
However, there is an exception for the under 15s, who attend due to parental influence.
What are the three possible explanations for age differences in religiosity according to Voas and Crockett?
- The ageing effect
- The period or cohort effect
- Secularisation
These explanations attempt to clarify the observed patterns of religious participation across different age groups.
What has been the trend in church attendance among younger people in the UK?
Church attendance is projected to fall sharply among younger people, especially those aged 15-19.
This decline suggests a changing relationship with religion as societal values evolve.
What percentage of churchgoers were aged 65 or over in 2015?
One in three
This indicates an ageing population of churchgoers.
What is the expected percentage of churchgoers aged 65 or over by 2030?
Over four in ten
This suggests declining numbers of young people joining congregations.
According to Voas (2003), what is the likelihood of parents raising their child to be a churchgoer if both parents share the same faith?
50/50 chance
What has science achieved in the field of medicine over the last few centuries?
Eradicated many once fatal diseases
What impact has science and technology had on daily life?
Revolutionised transport, communications, work, and leisure
What is the ‘faith in science’?
A belief that science can ‘deliver the goods’
What are some negative consequences of scientific advancement?
Pollution, global heating, weapons of mass destruction
What distinguishes science from other belief systems?
Its cognitive power to explain, predict, and control the world
What principle governs scientific inquiry according to Sir Karl Popper?
Falsificationism
What is the goal of scientists when testing existing theories?
To try and falsify them
What does Popper argue about scientific knowledge?
It is not sacred or absolute truth
What are the four norms of scientific practice known as ‘CUDOS’?
- Communism
- Universalism
- Disinterestedness
- Organised Scepticism
What does ‘Communism’ in scientific norms refer to?
Scientific knowledge must be shared with the scientific community
What does ‘Universalism’ in scientific norms imply?
Truth is judged by objective criteria, not by the scientist’s identity
What does ‘Disinterestedness’ mean in the context of science?
Commitment to discovering knowledge for its own sake
What does ‘Organised Scepticism’ entail?
No knowledge-claim is regarded as ‘sacred’
How does religion differ from science in terms of knowledge claims?
Religion claims to have absolute truth that cannot be challenged
What does Robin Horton argue about belief systems?
Science is an open belief system; religion is a closed one
What is an example of a closed belief system according to Evans-Pritchard?
Witchcraft beliefs among the Azande people
What are the three devices that sustain belief systems in the face of contradictory evidence?
- Circularity
- Subsidiary explanations
- Denial of legitimacy to rivals
What does Thomas Kuhn’s concept of ‘paradigm’ refer to?
Shared assumptions that guide scientific research
What happens during a scientific revolution according to Kuhn?
Faith in the paradigm is undermined, allowing for new ideas
What do interpretivist sociologists argue about scientific knowledge?
It is socially constructed
According to Karin Knorr-Cetina, what do new instruments allow scientists to do?
Make new observations and construct new facts
What is the criticism of scientific knowledge from Marxism and feminism?
It serves the interests of dominant groups
What is Lyotard’s view on science as a meta-narrative?
Science falsely claims to possess the truth
Fill in the blank: Ideology is a _______.
[worldview or a set of ideas and values]
What is the basic definition of ideology?
A worldview or a set of ideas and values - a belief system.
What are some negative aspects of ideology?
- Distorted, false or mistaken ideas about the world
- Ideas that conceal the interests of a particular group
- Ideas that prevent change by misleading people
- A self-sustaining belief system that is irrational and closed to criticism.
How does Marxism view the structure of society?
Society is divided into a minority capitalist ruling class and a majority working class.
What do Marxists believe is the workers’ interest regarding capitalism?
To overthrow capitalism through a socialist revolution and establish a classless communist society.
What is class consciousness in the Marxist context?
The awareness of one’s true position as exploited ‘wage slaves’.
What is ruling-class ideology?
Ideas that legitimate or justify the status quo and prevent change.
What are examples of ruling-class ideology?
- Equality will never work because it goes against ‘human nature’
- Victim blaming ideas about poverty
- Racist ideas about the inferiority of minority ethnic groups.
What concept does Antonio Gramsci introduce regarding ideological domination?
Hegemony.
What is dual consciousness in Gramsci’s theory?
A mixture of ruling-class ideology and ideas developed from direct experiences of exploitation.
What is nationalism according to its claims?
- Nations are real, distinctive communities
- Every nation should be self-governing
- National loyalty should come before all others.
How does Benedict Anderson define a nation?
An ‘imagined community’.
What is Marx’s view on nationalism?
A form of false class consciousness that divides the international working class.
How do functionalists view nationalism?
As a secular civil religion that integrates individuals into larger social and political units.
What does Ernest Gellner argue about nationalism?
Nationalism is a modern phenomenon, not a historical one.
What are the two broad types of belief systems according to Karl Mannheim?
- Ideological thought: justifies keeping things as they are
- Utopian thought: justifies social change.
What is the role of ‘organic intellectuals’ in Gramsci’s theory?
Workers who develop class consciousness through anti-capitalist struggles.
What is Mannheim’s view on the conflict of belief systems?
Different intellectuals produce opposed and antagonistic ideas that justify the interests of their groups.
What does Mannheim suggest as a solution to the conflict of ideologies?
To create a non-aligned or free-floating intelligentsia.
What do feminists see as the fundamental division in society?
Gender inequality.
What role does patriarchal ideology play according to feminists?
It legitimates gender inequality.
What historical perspective does Pauline Marks provide regarding women’s education?
19th-century views that educating females would lead to the creation of unfeminine women.
What is an example of patriarchal ideology in religion?
Ideas that women are ritually impure or unclean.
What does Gellner’s theory suggest about industrial societies?
They create large-scale, impersonal societies with a complex division of labour.
Fill in the blank: According to Mannheim, all belief systems are a _______.
[partial or one-sided worldview].
True or False: Marxism sees nationalism as a means to unite the working class.
False.
