Crime and Deviance Flashcards

1
Q

What do functionalists regard crime and deviance as?

A

A threat to social order and the existence of society

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2
Q

According to functionalists, why is crime considered inevitable?

A

Not everyone is equally socialized into shared norms and values, and there is a diversity of lifestyles and values in complex societies

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3
Q

Who stated that ‘crime is normal… an integral part of all healthy societies’?

A

Durkheim (1893)

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4
Q

What is anomie, according to Durkheim?

A

A state of normlessness where rules governing behavior become weaker and less clear-cut

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5
Q

What are the two positive functions of crime identified by Durkheim?

A
  • Boundary maintenance
  • Adaptation and change
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6
Q

What does boundary maintenance refer to in the context of crime?

A

The reaction from society that unites members in condemnation of the wrongdoer, reinforcing shared norms and values

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7
Q

What is the purpose of punishment according to Durkheim?

A

To reaffirm society’s shared rules and reinforce social solidarity

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8
Q

What role does the media play in the ‘dramatisation of evil’ according to Stanley Cohen?

A

Creates ‘folk devils’

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9
Q

How does Durkheim view the relationship between deviance and social change?

A

All change starts with an act of deviance

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10
Q

What does Kingsley Davis argue about prostitution?

A

Acts as a safety valve for the release of men’s sexual frustrations without threatening the family

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11
Q

What does Albert Cohen identify as a function of deviance?

A

A warning that an institution is not functioning properly

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12
Q

According to Kai Erikson, what might the true function of social control agencies be?

A

To sustain a certain level of crime rather than to eliminate it

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13
Q

True or False: Functionalism suggests that deviance can have hidden or latent functions for society.

A

True

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14
Q

What is a criticism of Durkheim’s view on deviance?

A

He offers no way of knowing how much deviance is the right amount

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15
Q

What do strain theories argue about deviant behavior?

A

People engage in deviance when they are unable to achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means

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16
Q

Who developed the first strain theory?

A

Robert K. Merton (1938)

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17
Q

What two elements does Merton’s strain theory combine?

A
  • Structural factors
  • Cultural factors
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18
Q

What does the term ‘strain to anomie’ refer to?

A

The pressure to deviate due to the gap between cultural goals and legitimate opportunities

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19
Q

What are the five types of adaptation according to Merton’s strain theory?

A
  • Conformity
  • Innovation
  • Ritualism
  • Retreatism
  • Rebellion
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20
Q

What is the response of ‘conformity’ in Merton’s adaptation types?

A

Individuals accept the culturally approved goals and strive to achieve them legitimately

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21
Q

What does ‘innovation’ entail in Merton’s theory?

A

Accepting the goal of money success but using illegitimate means to achieve it

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22
Q

What is ‘retreatism’ in Merton’s adaptation types?

A

Rejecting both the goals and the legitimate means and becoming dropouts

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23
Q

What does ‘rebellion’ involve in the context of Merton’s theory?

A

Rejecting existing society’s goals and means, replacing them with new ones

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24
Q

What is a critique of Merton’s strain theory regarding crime statistics?

A

It takes official crime statistics at face value, which may over-represent working-class crime

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25
Q

Which theorists built upon Merton’s ideas regarding subcultures?

A

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960)

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26
Q

What is status frustration according to Albert K. Cohen?

A

The frustration felt by working-class boys unable to achieve status through legitimate means

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27
Q

What does Cohen argue working-class boys create as a response to their status frustration?

A

A delinquent subculture with inverted values from mainstream society

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28
Q

How does Cohen’s theory explain non-utilitarian deviance?

A

By focusing on status frustration, value inversion, and alternative status hierarchy

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29
Q

What do Cloward and Ohlin note about different subcultural responses?

A

Different subcultures respond in various ways to the lack of legitimate opportunities

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30
Q

What concept do Cloward and Ohlin introduce to explain different subcultural responses to the lack of legitimate opportunities?

A

Unequal access to illegitimate opportunity structures

This concept suggests that not everyone has the same chances to learn and practice criminal skills.

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31
Q

What are the three types of deviant subcultures identified by Cloward and Ohlin?

A
  • Criminal subcultures
  • Conflict subcultures
  • Retreatist subcultures

Each type arises under different social conditions and offers distinct opportunities for youth.

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32
Q

What characterizes criminal subcultures according to Cloward and Ohlin?

A

They provide youths with an apprenticeship for a career in utilitarian crime

These subcultures arise in neighborhoods with stable criminal cultures and established hierarchies.

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33
Q

What are conflict subcultures and how do they arise?

A

They arise in areas of high population turnover, leading to social disorganization and loosely organized gangs

Violence in these subcultures serves as a release for frustration and an alternative source of status.

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34
Q

What is a retreatist subculture?

A

A subculture based on illegal drug use for those who fail in both legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures

These individuals are often referred to as ‘double failures’.

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35
Q

True or False: Cloward and Ohlin’s theory predicts that individuals can belong to multiple deviant subcultures.

A

False

Their theory suggests that individuals belong to distinct subcultures based on their opportunities.

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36
Q

What is the main critique of strain theories according to critics?

A

They assume everyone shares the same mainstream success goals

Critics argue that this overlooks the existence of independent subcultures with their own values.

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37
Q

What does Walter B. Miller argue about the lower class and deviance?

A

The lower class has its own independent subculture with its own values that do not prioritize mainstream success

This leads to deviance arising from attempts to achieve their own goals.

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38
Q

According to David Matza, how do most delinquents relate to their subculture?

A

They drift in and out of delinquency rather than being strongly committed to their subculture

This perspective contrasts with the view that delinquents are wholly immersed in their deviant identities.

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39
Q

What does institutional anomie theory focus on?

A

The American Dream and its impact on crime rates

It argues that the emphasis on monetary success creates an environment conducive to crime.

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40
Q

What evidence supports Messner and Rosenfeld’s claim regarding welfare spending and crime rates?

A

Societies that spend more on welfare have lower rates of imprisonment

This was found in a survey of crime rates and welfare spending across 18 countries.

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41
Q

What do labelling theorists argue about the nature of deviance?

A

No act is inherently criminal; it becomes so when society labels it as such

This perspective emphasizes the importance of societal reaction in defining deviance.

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42
Q

Who are moral entrepreneurs in the context of labelling theory?

A

Individuals who lead campaigns to change laws or define behaviours as deviant

Their efforts can create new categories of deviance and expand social control agencies.

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43
Q

What is the ‘dark figure of crime’?

A

The difference between official statistics and the ‘real’ rate of crime that goes undetected or unreported

It highlights the limitations of relying solely on official crime statistics.

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44
Q

What are primary and secondary deviance according to Edwin Lemert?

A
  • Primary deviance: acts not publicly labelled
  • Secondary deviance: deviance resulting from societal reaction and labelling

Primary deviance is often trivial and goes uncaught, while secondary deviance leads to a deviant identity.

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45
Q

What is a master status in the context of labelling theory?

A

A controlling identity that overrides all others, often due to being labelled as deviant

This can lead to a crisis in self-concept and further deviance.

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46
Q

What does Jock Young’s study on hippy marijuana users illustrate about deviance?

A

It shows how persecution and labelling can lead to the formation of a deviant subculture

Initially, drug use was peripheral, but societal reaction pushed them into a more defined deviant identity.

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47
Q

What is a deviant career?

A

A deviant career refers to a trajectory of deviant behavior that is reinforced by societal reactions and labels.

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48
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary deviance?

A

Primary deviance is the initial act of rule-breaking, while secondary deviance occurs when a person internalizes the label of deviance due to societal reaction.

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49
Q

Who studied the hippy marijuana users in Notting Hill and what concept did they introduce?

A

Jock Young studied hippy marijuana users and introduced the concepts of secondary deviance and deviant career.

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50
Q

What is the deviance amplification spiral?

A

The deviance amplification spiral describes a process where attempts to control deviance lead to an increase in deviant behavior, creating a cycle of escalating responses.

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51
Q

True or False: The deviance amplification spiral leads to successful control of deviance.

A

False.

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52
Q

What are folk devils?

A

Folk devils are individuals or groups that are demonized by society and labeled as deviants, often leading to moral panics.

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53
Q

How do folk devils relate to the dark figure of crime?

A

Folk devils are over-exposed and labeled, while the dark figure of crime consists of unrecorded and ignored criminal acts.

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54
Q

What did Triplett (2000) note about the perception of young offenders in the USA?

A

Triplett noted an increasing tendency to view young offenders as evil and less tolerant of minor deviance.

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55
Q

What are the two types of shaming identified by John Braithwaite?

A
  • Disintegrative shaming
  • Reintegrative shaming
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56
Q

What is the aim of reintegrative shaming?

A

To label the act but not the actor, reducing stigma and encouraging forgiveness.

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57
Q

How do interactionists view official statistics on suicide?

A

Interactionists view them as socially constructed and not reflective of the true meanings behind individuals’ actions.

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58
Q

What did Jack Douglas argue regarding suicide statistics?

A

Douglas argued that official statistics tell us more about the labels attached to deaths than the actual rates of suicide.

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59
Q

What is Atkinson’s focus in understanding suicide verdicts?

A

Atkinson focuses on the commonsense knowledge and assumptions that coroners use when determining suicide verdicts.

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60
Q

What do interactionists believe about mental illness statistics?

A

They believe these statistics are social constructs that reflect the activities of those who label others as mentally ill.

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61
Q

What does Lemert’s study of paranoia illustrate?

A

It illustrates how primary deviance can lead to secondary deviance through social labeling and exclusion.

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62
Q

What is meant by ‘mortification of the self’ in Goffman’s study?

A

It refers to the process where an individual’s old identity is symbolically killed off and replaced by a new identity in a total institution.

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63
Q

What is the critique of labelling theory regarding determinism?

A

Labelling theory is criticized for being deterministic, implying that once labeled, a deviant career is inevitable.

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64
Q

What does strain theory suggest about deviant behavior?

A

Strain theory suggests that people engage in deviant behavior when legitimate opportunities to achieve success are blocked.

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65
Q

Fill in the blank: Merton calls the use of deviant means to achieve wealth __________.

A

[innovation]

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66
Q

What is status frustration according to A.K. Cohen?

A

Status frustration arises when working-class youths fail to achieve in education and find themselves at the bottom of the status hierarchy.

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67
Q

What is the significance of the ‘pseudo-patient’ experiment conducted by Rosenhan?

A

It demonstrated that individuals can be misclassified as mentally ill based on labels, despite behaving normally.

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68
Q

What does Merton’s idea suggest about the working class and success?

A

The working class suffers from blocked opportunities to achieve success by legitimate means.

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69
Q

How does A.K. Cohen view working-class youths?

A

Culturally deprived and lacking the means to achieve in education.

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70
Q

What is status frustration according to Cohen?

A

The failure to achieve that leads to the formation of a delinquent subculture.

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71
Q

What is the solution to status frustration for working-class youths?

A

Forming or joining a delinquent subculture that inverts mainstream values.

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72
Q

What concept do Cloward and Ohlin introduce?

A

Illegitimate opportunity structures.

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73
Q

What types of subcultures do Cloward and Ohlin identify?

A
  • Criminal subculture
  • Conflict subculture
  • Retreatist drug subculture
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74
Q

What is the main focus of labelling theory?

A

How and why working-class people come to be labelled as criminal.

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75
Q

True or False: Labelling theorists see official statistics as a valid resource for sociologists.

A

False.

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76
Q

What do Marxists agree with labelling theorists about the law?

A

The law is enforced disproportionately against the working class.

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77
Q

What are the three main elements of Marxist explanations of crime?

A
  • Criminogenic capitalism
  • The state and law making
  • Ideological functions of crime and law
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78
Q

What does ‘criminogenic capitalism’ mean?

A

Capitalism causes crime by its very nature.

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79
Q

What are some reasons for crime in the working class according to Marxists?

A
  • Poverty leads to survival crime
  • Alienation causes frustration and aggression
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80
Q

What does the state prioritize according to Marxists?

A

The interests of the capitalist class.

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81
Q

How do Marxists view the relationship between law enforcement and crime?

A

There is selective enforcement of the law.

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82
Q

What is meant by ‘selective enforcement’?

A

The criminal justice system criminalizes powerless groups while ignoring crimes of the powerful.

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83
Q

What is a critique of Marxism regarding crime?

A

It largely ignores non-class inequalities such as ethnicity and gender.

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84
Q

Who are neo-Marxists?

A

Sociologists influenced by Marxism, combining it with other approaches.

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85
Q

What is the central claim of Taylor et al in ‘The New Criminology’?

A

Capitalist society is based on exploitation and class conflict.

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86
Q

What is anti-determinism in the context of Taylor et al’s views?

A

Rejecting the idea that crime is driven solely by economic necessity.

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87
Q

What are the six aspects of a ‘fully social theory of deviance’ according to Taylor et al?

A
  • Wider origins of the act
  • Immediate origins of the act
  • The act itself and its meaning
  • Immediate origins of social reaction
  • Wider origins of social reaction
  • Effects of labelling on future actions
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88
Q

What is a criticism of critical criminology?

A

It is gender blind and romanticizes working-class criminals.

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89
Q

What is the definition of ‘white collar crime’ according to Edwin Sutherland?

A

A crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupation.

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90
Q

What are the two types of crime differentiated by Sutherland?

A
  • Occupational crime
  • Corporate crime
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91
Q

What does Pearce and Tombs’ definition of corporate crime include?

A

Any illegal act or omission benefiting a legitimate business organization.

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92
Q

What are some types of corporate crime?

A
  • Financial crimes
  • Crimes against consumers
  • Environmental crimes
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93
Q

How does corporate crime compare in harm to ordinary crime?

A

White collar and corporate crime do far more harm than ordinary crime.

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94
Q

What is the estimated cost of white collar crimes compared to ordinary crimes in the USA?

A

Over ten times that of ordinary crimes.

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95
Q

What does Tombs argue about corporate crime?

A

It is widespread, routine, and pervasive.

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96
Q

What are the three main costs of corporate crime?

A

Physical, environmental, and economic costs.

Physical costs include deaths, injuries, and illnesses; environmental costs include pollution; economic costs affect consumers, workers, taxpayers, and governments.

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97
Q

What does corporate crime encompass?

A

A wide range of acts and omissions including:
* Financial crimes
* Crimes against consumers
* Crimes against employees
* Crimes against the environment

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98
Q

Give examples of financial crimes.

A

Examples include:
* Tax evasion
* Bribery
* Money laundering
* Illegal accounting

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99
Q

What specific consumer crime was highlighted regarding breast implants?

A

In 2011, the French government recommended removal of breast implants from Poly Implant Prothèse due to dangerous industrial silicone.

Approximately 300,000 implants were sold in 65 countries.

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100
Q

What types of crimes against employees are mentioned?

A

Examples include:
* Sexual and racial discrimination
* Violations of wage laws
* Violations of rights to unionize
* Health and safety law violations

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101
Q

How many work-related deaths per year involve law-breaking by employers, according to Tombs (2013)?

A

Up to 1,100 work-related deaths per year.

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102
Q

What are crimes against the environment?

A

Illegal pollution of air, water, and land, including toxic waste dumping.

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103
Q

What scandal involved Volkswagen in 2015?

A

Volkswagen admitted to installing software in 11 million diesel vehicles to disguise emissions levels that were 40 times above the US legal limit.

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104
Q

What is state-corporate crime?

A

Crimes committed when government institutions and businesses cooperate to pursue their goals.

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105
Q

What is the significance of high-status professionals in corporate crime?

A

They occupy positions of trust, which can be abused, leading to serious crimes.

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106
Q

What was KPMG fined for?

A

KPMG admitted to criminal wrongdoing in a tax fraud case and paid a $456 million fine.

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107
Q

What notorious case exemplifies the abuse of trust in health professionals?

A

The case of GP Harold Shipman, who was convicted of murdering 15 patients but is believed to have killed at least 200.

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108
Q

Why are corporate crimes often invisible compared to street crimes?

A

Due to limited media coverage, lack of political will, complexity of crimes, and de-labelling in legal definitions.

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109
Q

What is de-labelling in the context of corporate crime?

A

The process where corporate offenses are defined as civil rather than criminal, leading to fewer penalties and prosecutions.

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110
Q

What is a common result of under-reporting in corporate crime?

A

The victims are often society or the environment, making it difficult to identify individual victims.

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111
Q

Which movement has increased the visibility of corporate crime since the 2008 financial crisis?

A

Campaigns against corporate tax avoidance, such as Occupy and UK Uncut.

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112
Q

What does strain theory suggest about corporate crime?

A

It argues that when legitimate means to achieve profit are blocked, companies may resort to illegal methods.

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113
Q

According to Sutherland’s differential association theory, how does crime behavior develop?

A

Crime is learned behavior influenced by associations with others who hold criminal attitudes.

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114
Q

What are techniques of neutralisation?

A

Justifications that allow individuals to deviate without moral objections, such as blaming the victim or claiming ‘everyone’s doing it.’

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115
Q

What role does labelling theory play in white collar crime?

A

It suggests that the definition of crime depends on successful labelling, which often favors the middle class.

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116
Q

How do businesses avoid being labelled as criminal?

A

They can afford legal expertise and have the power to negotiate non-criminal labels for their actions.

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117
Q

What do Marxists believe about corporate crime?

A

It is a normal function of capitalism, which aims to maximize profits at the expense of societal harm.

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118
Q

What is ‘mystification’ in the context of corporate crime according to Box (1983)?

A

The ideology that corporate crime is less widespread or harmful than working-class crime.

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119
Q

What is a criticism of strain theory and Marxism regarding business crime?

A

They may over-predict the amount of business crime, assuming all businesses would offend without risk of punishment.

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120
Q

What did Braithwaite (1984) find regarding law-abiding businesses?

A

Law-abiding practices may be more profitable than law-breaking.

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121
Q

What does right realism see as the main problem caused by crime?

A

Destroys communities, undermines social cohesion, and threatens society’s work ethic.

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122
Q

Who is a main theorist associated with right realism?

A

James Q. Wilson.

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123
Q

What policy is justified by right realist views on crime?

A

Zero tolerance of street crime and disorder.

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124
Q

What did policymakers argue during the rise of right realism?

A

‘Nothing works’ in terms of criminology providing solutions.

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125
Q

What two approaches do right realists prioritize over understanding the causes of crime?

A

Control and punishment.

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126
Q

According to right realists, what are the three factors that produce crime?

A
  • Individual biological differences
  • Inadequate socialisation
  • Rational choice to offend.
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127
Q

What theory do Wilson and Herrnstein propose regarding crime?

A

A biosocial theory of criminal behaviour.

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128
Q

Which family structure do right realists consider the best agency for socialisation?

A

The nuclear family.

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129
Q

What does Charles Murray argue is responsible for the increasing crime rate?

A

A growing underclass failing to socialise their children properly.

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130
Q

What is the concept of rational choice theory in the context of crime?

A

Individuals make decisions based on a rational calculation of consequences.

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131
Q

True or False: Right realists believe that the perceived costs of crime are high.

A

False.

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132
Q

What does Felson’s routine activity theory state is necessary for a crime to occur?

A
  • Motivated offender
  • Suitable target
  • Absence of a capable guardian.
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133
Q

What criticism is made about right realism’s focus on crime?

A

It ignores wider structural causes such as poverty.

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134
Q

What is the main focus of right realists regarding crime prevention?

A

Control, containment, and punishment of offenders.

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135
Q

What does the term ‘zero tolerance’ refer to in the context of policing?

A

A policy of strict enforcement of laws against minor offenses.

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136
Q

According to Wilson and Kelling, what must be maintained to prevent crime?

A

The orderly character of neighborhoods.

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137
Q

What does Jock Young argue about the ‘success’ of zero tolerance policing?

A

It was a myth; crime rates were already declining before its implementation.

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138
Q

What are some criticisms of zero tolerance policing?

A
  • Preoccupation with petty street crime
  • Discrimination against minorities
  • Ignoring the causes of neighborhood decline.
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139
Q

What do left realists believe about the nature of society?

A

It is an unequal capitalist society.

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140
Q

How do left realists differ from Marxists in their approach to crime?

A

They seek gradual change rather than revolutionary change.

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141
Q

What is the central idea of left realism regarding crime?

A

Crime is a real problem, especially affecting disadvantaged groups.

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142
Q

What term describes the crisis in explanation for theories of crime identified by Young?

A

Aetiological crisis.

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143
Q

What are the three related causes of crime identified by Lea and Young?

A
  • Relative deprivation
  • Subculture
  • Marginalisation.
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144
Q

What does relative deprivation refer to?

A

Feeling deprived in comparison to others or one’s own expectations.

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145
Q

What combination does Young argue leads to crime?

A

Relative deprivation and individualism.

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146
Q

How do left realists view criminal subcultures?

A

As a group’s collective solution to relative deprivation.

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147
Q

What is a key characteristic of marginalised groups according to Young?

A

They lack clear goals and organizations to represent their interests.

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148
Q

What does Young argue about the current stage of society?

A

We are living in late modern society characterized by instability and insecurity.

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149
Q

What do Young’s arguments suggest about the relationship between unemployment and crime?

A

Unemployed youth express frustration through criminal means such as violence and rioting.

Young argues that marginalized groups without organization resort to crime due to a lack of political means.

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150
Q

What characterized the ‘Golden Age’ of modern capitalist society according to Young?

A

Stability, security, social inclusion, full employment, and low crime rates.

This period is contrasted with the increased insecurity and exclusion since the 1970s.

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151
Q

What factors have contributed to increased exclusion since the 1970s?

A
  • De-industrialisation
  • Loss of unskilled jobs
  • Short-term or low-paid jobs
  • New Right government policies

These changes have destabilized family and community life.

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152
Q

What is the concept of relative deprivation as discussed by Young?

A

The sense of deprivation experienced by individuals when they perceive themselves as less well-off compared to others.

This concept highlights the growing contrast between cultural inclusion and economic exclusion.

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153
Q

How does Young relate cultural inclusion to economic exclusion?

A

Media promotes cultural inclusion while the poor are denied opportunities to achieve material wealth.

This leads to a disconnection between societal goals and achievable means.

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154
Q

True or False: Young argues that relative deprivation is confined to those at the bottom of society.

A

False.

Young suggests that relative deprivation is becoming generalised throughout society.

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155
Q

What changes in crime types does Young observe in late modern society?

A

Crime is found throughout the social structure and includes an increase in ‘hate crimes’.

This shift reflects broader social changes rather than being confined to the lower class.

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156
Q

What does Young identify as a consequence of the disintegration of families and communities?

A

Less effective informal controls and increased public intolerance towards crime.

This can lead to demands for harsher penalties.

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157
Q

What challenge do left realists face regarding the perception of crime rates since the mid-1990s?

A

The crime rate has fallen substantially, contradicting the notion that crime is the major threat.

This raises questions about the social construction of crime as a problem.

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158
Q

What is the purpose of Anti-Social Behaviour Orders (ASBOs) according to Young?

A

To control a widening range of behaviour and ‘manufacture’ more crime.

ASBOs blur the boundaries of crime by defining incivilities as criminal acts.

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159
Q

What do Kinsey, Lea, and Young argue about police clear-up rates?

A

They are too low to act as a deterrent to crime.

They suggest that police should focus more on investigating crimes.

160
Q

What is the main argument of left realists regarding the solution to crime?

A

Addressing the structural causes of crime rather than solely improving policing and control.

They emphasize tackling inequality and discrimination.

161
Q

How did the New Labour government align with left realist views?

A

By adopting a ‘tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime’ approach.

Their policies aimed to protect vulnerable groups and address exclusion.

162
Q

What critiques do left realists face regarding their focus on street crime?

A

They are criticized for ignoring corporate crime and the harm caused by powerful groups.

This perspective is seen as limited by some theorists.

163
Q

What is the ‘chivalry thesis’ in relation to gender and crime?

A

The idea that the criminal justice system is more lenient towards women due to a protective attitude.

This thesis suggests that women’s crimes are underrepresented in official statistics.

164
Q

How do self-report studies challenge the chivalry thesis?

A

They suggest that the difference in offending rates between genders is smaller than official statistics indicate.

For example, males were found to be 2.33 times more likely to admit to offenses.

165
Q

What evidence contradicts the idea that women receive more lenient treatment in the criminal justice system?

A
  • Women are not sentenced more leniently for comparable offences
  • Studies show similar sentencing for serious offences
  • Females are more likely to be prosecuted for shoplifting

These findings challenge the validity of the chivalry thesis.

166
Q

What is one reason cited for the apparent leniency towards female offenders?

A

Their offences are often less serious compared to those committed by males.

This may contribute to fewer prosecutions and less severe sentences.

167
Q

What do feminists argue about the treatment of women in the criminal justice system?

A

They argue that it is biased against women rather than in favor of them.

This perspective suggests systemic issues that affect women’s treatment.

168
Q

What is the main reason women offenders may receive cautions instead of going to court?

A

Women offenders are more likely to show remorse

This may lead to lesser charges being filed against them.

169
Q

What do feminists argue regarding the criminal justice system’s bias?

A

It is biased against women, contrary to the chivalry thesis which claims it favors them.

170
Q

What double standard exists in the punishment of sexual activity among youths?

A

Courts punish girls but not boys for premature or ‘promiscuous’ sexual activity.

171
Q

According to Sharpe (2009), how many girls were referred for support due to sexual activity?

A

Seven out of 11 girls, while none out of 44 boys were referred.

172
Q

What is a key finding of Stewart (2006) regarding magistrates’ perceptions of female defendants?

A

Their perceptions are based on stereotypical gender roles.

173
Q

According to Pat Carlen (1997), what factors influence the sentencing of women?

A

Sentences are influenced more by the court’s assessment of them as wives, mothers, and daughters than the seriousness of their crimes.

174
Q

How does the perception of female defendants’ characters affect sentencing?

A

Women who do not conform to accepted standards of monogamous heterosexuality and motherhood are punished more harshly.

175
Q

What did Carol Smart (1989) report about male judges’ comments in rape cases?

A

Judges made sexist, victim-blaming remarks.

176
Q

What is the main argument of Adler (1987) regarding women in court?

A

Women deemed to lack respectability find it difficult to have their testimony believed.

177
Q

What did Talcott Parsons (1955) argue about gender roles in the nuclear family?

A

Men take the instrumental role while women perform the expressive role.

178
Q

What is ‘compensatory compulsory masculinity’?

A

A behavior where boys engage in aggression and anti-social behavior to distance themselves from feminine models.

179
Q

According to Albert K. Cohen (1955), what do boys often turn to in the absence of an adult male role model?

A

All-male street gangs.

180
Q

What is the main criticism of Parsons’ sex role theory by Sandra Walklate (2003)?

A

It is based on untested biological assumptions about sex differences.

181
Q

What are the two main feminist approaches to explaining women’s patterns of crime?

A
  • Control theory
  • Liberation thesis
182
Q

What is Heidensohn’s (1996) view on women’s behavior in relation to crime?

A

Women’s conformist behavior is due to greater patriarchal control, which reduces their opportunities to offend.

183
Q

How does patriarchal control operate at home according to Heidensohn?

A

Women’s domestic roles impose restrictions on their time and movement.

184
Q

What did Dobash and Dobash (1979) find regarding domestic violence?

A

Many violent attacks result from men’s dissatisfaction with their wives’ performance of domestic duties.

185
Q

What is the impact of fear of male violence on women’s public behavior?

A

Women avoid going out after dark due to fear of becoming victims of crime.

186
Q

What is the ‘glass ceiling’ as mentioned in relation to women’s opportunities in crime?

A

It prevents women from rising to senior positions where there is greater opportunity to commit fraud.

187
Q

According to Carlen (1988), what are the two types of deals that lead women to conform?

A
  • The class deal
  • The gender deal
188
Q

What happens when women do not perceive the class and gender deals as rewarding?

A

Crime becomes more likely.

189
Q

What conclusions did Carlen reach regarding the causes of female criminality?

A

Poverty and oppressive family life are the main causes, with drug and alcohol addiction being contributory factors.

190
Q

What is the liberation thesis proposed by Freda Adler (1975)?

A

As women become liberated from patriarchy, their crime rates will become similar to men’s.

191
Q

What evidence supports Adler’s view on the increase of female crime rates?

A

The female share of offences rose from one in 7 to one in 6 between the 1950s and 1990s.

192
Q

What do critics argue against Adler’s liberation thesis?

A
  • The rise in female crime rates began before the women’s liberation movement
  • Most female criminals are working-class
  • Little evidence of increased opportunities in professional crime
193
Q

What trend was noted in the female arrest and conviction statistics for violent crime between 2000 and 2008?

A

The number of females arrested for violence rose by an average of 17% each year.

194
Q

What did Steffensmeier and Schwartz (2009) find regarding the female share of arrests for violence?

A

It grew from one-fifth to one-third between 1980 and 2003.

195
Q

What trend has been observed in female arrests for violent crimes in the USA from 1980 to 2003?

A

The female share of arrests for violence grew from one-fifth to one-third

This rise was not matched by victim survey findings, indicating no increase in attacks by females.

196
Q

What do Steffensmeier and Schwartz argue is the reason for the rise in female arrests for violent crime?

A

The justice system is ‘widening the net’ by arresting females for less serious forms of violence

This suggests that the rise in arrests does not reflect an actual increase in violent crime among females.

197
Q

What is ‘net widening’ in the context of female criminality?

A

A policy leading to the arrest and prosecution of females for less serious offenses than before

This has contributed to the rise in official statistics for females’ violent crimes.

198
Q

According to Chesney-Lind (2006), what effect has mandatory arrests for domestic violence had on female crime statistics?

A

It has led to a steep rise in female violence statistics

Both partners in a domestic dispute may be arrested, even if one is the victim.

199
Q

What does Jock Young (2011) mean by ‘defining deviance up’?

A

It refers to the trend of prosecuting trivial offenses as criminal behavior

This has contributed to rising statistics of female violent crimes.

200
Q

What is the gender distribution of homicide victims?

A

About 70% are male

Female victims are more likely to know their killer, often a partner or ex-partner.

201
Q

What percentage of women experience domestic abuse during their adult life?

A

One in four

This highlights the prevalence of intimate violence against women.

202
Q

True or False: More women than men report having been sexually assaulted.

A

True

Five times more women than men report experiencing sexual assault.

203
Q

What is the relationship between fear of crime and actual risk of victimization for women?

A

Women have a greater fear of crime but are at less risk of victimization

Some local surveys suggest women may actually be at greater risk.

204
Q

What concept does James Messerschmidt (1993) focus on to explain men’s higher rates of offending?

A

Masculinity as a social construct or ‘accomplishment’

Men constantly work at constructing and presenting their masculinity.

205
Q

What is hegemonic masculinity defined by?

A

Work in the paid-labour market, subordination of women, heterosexism, and uncontrollable male sexuality

This form of masculinity is the dominant and most sought after by men.

206
Q

Fill in the blank: The ‘lads’ in Willis’ (1977) study exemplify _______.

A

oppositional masculinity

This is constructed around sexist attitudes and opposing authority.

207
Q

What are the characteristics of bodily capital in Winlow’s (2001) study of bouncers?

A

Using violence becomes a commodity for earning a living and maintaining reputation

Bouncers develop their physical assets through activities like bodybuilding.

208
Q

What are the limitations of victim surveys in studying ethnicity and offending?

A

They rely on memory, cover only personal crimes, exclude under 10s, and exclude organizational crimes

These limitations affect the representativeness of offender data.

209
Q

What findings did Graham and Bowling (1995) report regarding offending rates among different ethnic groups?

A

White and Black rates of offending were very similar, while Indian, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi rates were lower

This challenges stereotypes of Black individuals being more likely to offend.

210
Q

What does the Macpherson Report (1999) conclude about policing of minority ethnic communities?

A

There have been allegations of oppressive policing practices

This includes mass stop and search operations and police violence.

211
Q

How much more likely were Black people to be stopped and searched by police in 2020 compared to White people?

A

Nine times more likely

This statistic highlights racial disparities in policing.

212
Q

What is the public perception of police among members of minority ethnic communities?

A

They often feel ‘over-policed and under-protected’

This reflects a lack of faith in police fairness and effectiveness.

213
Q

What is the term used to describe the phenomenon of being ‘over-policed and under-protected’?

A

‘Over-policed and under-protected’ refers to the limited faith in the police among certain communities.

214
Q

In 2019/20, how much more likely were Black people to have force used against them by Metropolitan police officers compared to White people?

A

Black people were four times more likely to have force used against them.

215
Q

What are the three possible reasons for the disproportionate use of stop and search against minority ethnic groups?

A
  • Police racism
  • Ethnic differences in offending
  • Demographic factors
216
Q

What did the Macpherson Report (1999) conclude about the Metropolitan Police?

A

The report concluded that there was institutional racism within the Metropolitan Police.

217
Q

What are low discretion stops?

A

Low discretion stops occur when police act on relevant information about a specific offence.

218
Q

What are high discretion stops?

A

High discretion stops occur when police act without specific intelligence, often leading to the use of stereotypes.

219
Q

What is the arrest rate for Black people compared to White people?

A

The arrest rate for Black people is over three times the rate for White people.

220
Q

True or False: White arrestees are more likely than Black arrestees to receive a caution.

221
Q

What is the role of the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS)?

A

The CPS decides whether a case brought by the police should be prosecuted in court.

222
Q

What did Bowling and Phillips (2002) suggest about the CPS’s handling of cases against minority ethnic groups?

A

They suggested that the CPS is more likely to drop cases against minority ethnic groups due to weaker evidence based on stereotypes.

223
Q

How do Black and Asian defendants compare in terms of being found guilty?

A

Black and Asian defendants are less likely to be found guilty compared to White defendants.

224
Q

What is a pre-sentence report (PSR)?

A

A PSR is a risk assessment intended to assist magistrates in deciding the appropriate sentence for an offender.

225
Q

What did Hudson and Bramhall (2005) argue about PSRs?

A

They argued that PSRs allow for unwitting discrimination, with reports on Asian offenders being less comprehensive.

226
Q

As of 2021, what percentage of the prison population were from minority ethnic groups?

A

Just over a quarter of the prison population.

227
Q

What is the ratio of Black people to White people in prison?

A

Black people were almost four times more likely to be in prison than White people.

228
Q

What is the significance of the events of 9/11 in the context of racial perceptions?

A

The events helped to crystallize the idea that Asian people, especially Muslims, were an ‘enemy within’ threatening public order.

229
Q

What do left realists argue about ethnic differences in statistics?

A

They argue that the statistics reflect real differences in the levels of offending by different ethnic groups.

230
Q

According to Lea and Young (1993), what factors lead to higher levels of crime among minority ethnic groups?

A
  • Relative deprivation
  • Subculture
  • Marginalisation
231
Q

What do neo-Marxists argue about the differences in crime statistics?

A

They argue that the differences are a social construct resulting from racist labelling and discrimination.

232
Q

According to Gilroy (1982), what is the myth of Black criminality?

A

The myth is that Black criminality is a stereotype, and minority ethnic groups are no more criminal than others.

233
Q

What did Hall et al. (1979) argue about the moral panic surrounding ‘Black muggers’?

A

They argued it served the interests of capitalism during a crisis by scapegoating Black youth.

234
Q

What is the relationship between neighbourhood factors and crime rates among Black youths?

A

Poverty and contact with affluent groups in very poor areas can increase involvement in street robbery.

235
Q

What is racist victimisation?

A

Racist victimisation occurs when an individual is targeted because of their race, ethnicity, or religion.

236
Q

Fill in the blank: The 1999 inquiry into the police investigation of Stephen Lawrence’s murder led to the _____ Report.

A

Macpherson

237
Q

What is racist victimisation?

A

When an individual is selected as a target because of their race, ethnicity or religion.

238
Q

What event brought greater public focus on racist victimisation?

A

The racist murder of the Black teenager Stephen Lawrence in 1993.

239
Q

What are the two main sources of information on racist victimisation?

A
  • Victim surveys such as the CSEW
  • Police-recorded statistics
240
Q

Define ‘racist incidents’.

A

Any incident that is perceived to be racist by the victim or another person.

241
Q

What are racially or religiously aggravated offences?

A

Offences like assault, wounding, criminal damage and harassment motivated by hostility towards a racial or religious group.

242
Q

How many race hate crimes were reported in England and Wales in 2019/20?

A

76,000 race hate crimes.

243
Q

How many religious hate crimes were reported in England and Wales in 2019/20?

A

6,800 religious hate crimes.

244
Q

What does the CSEW estimate about racially motivated incidents in 2019/20?

A

Around 104,000 racially motivated incidents.

245
Q

What is the average number of racially aggravated offences per year?

A

Around 60,000.

246
Q

Which ethnic group had the highest risk of becoming a victim of crime according to the 2019/2020 CSEW?

A

People from Mixed ethnic backgrounds (20%).

247
Q

List three factors strongly linked with victimisation.

A
  • Being young
  • Being male
  • Being unemployed
248
Q

True or False: The statistics on victimisation capture the victims’ experiences.

249
Q

What do Sampson and Phillips (1992) note about racist victimisation?

A

It tends to be ongoing over time, with repeated minor instances of abuse and harassment.

250
Q

What types of measures have members of minority ethnic communities taken in response to victimisation?

A
  • Situational crime prevention measures (e.g., fireproof doors)
  • Organised self-defence campaigns
251
Q

What was concluded by the Macpherson Enquiry (1999) regarding the police investigation into Stephen Lawrence’s death?

A

It was marred by professional incompetence, institutional racism, and a failure of leadership.

252
Q

What are some issues identified with police responses to racist victimisation?

A

Ignoring the racist dimensions of victimisation and failing to properly record or investigate reported incidents.

253
Q

Fill in the blank: The CSEW estimates around _______ religiously motivated incidents in 2019/20.

254
Q

What percentage of news coverage in quality press and radio news is devoted to crime and deviance according to Richard Ericson et al (1991)?

A

45-71%

This statistic highlights the significant focus of news media on crime-related topics.

255
Q

What did Williams and Dickinson (1993) find regarding the space British newspapers devote to crime?

A

Up to 30%

This indicates a substantial portion of news space is allocated to crime stories.

256
Q

True or False: The media accurately represent crime rates and types as shown in official statistics.

A

False

The media distort the image of crime, criminals, and policing.

257
Q

What is the ‘age fallacy’ as described by Felson (1998)?

A

The media portray criminals and victims as older and more middle-class than they actually are

This concept highlights discrepancies between media representation and reality.

258
Q

What did Ditton and Duffy (1983) find about the representation of violent and sexual crimes in the media?

A

46% of media reports were about violent or sexual crimes, while these made up only 3% of all recorded crimes.

This shows a significant over-representation of certain crime types in the media.

259
Q

Fill in the blank: The media overplay extraordinary crimes and underplay ordinary crimes, which Felson calls the _______.

A

dramatic fallacy

This term describes the media’s focus on sensational rather than typical crime.

260
Q

What shift did Schlesinger and Tumber (1994) observe in media coverage of crime from the 1960s to the 1990s?

A

A shift from focusing on murders and petty crime to including drugs, child abuse, terrorism, and football hooliganism.

This reflects changes in societal concerns and crime trends.

261
Q

According to Keith Soothill and Sylvia Walby (1991), how did newspaper reporting of rape cases change from 1951 to 1985?

A

Increased from under a quarter to over a third of all cases reported.

This indicates a growing media focus on sexual crimes.

262
Q

What are ‘news values’?

A

Criteria by which journalists and editors decide whether a story is newsworthy enough to be published.

Key news values include immediacy, dramatization, personalization, and risk.

263
Q

List three key news values influencing the selection of crime stories.

A
  • Immediacy
  • Dramatisation
  • Personalisation

These values determine the likelihood of a crime story being reported.

264
Q

What is the ‘law of opposites’ in the context of fictional representations of crime?

A

Fictional representations of crime are the opposite of official statistics and similar to news coverage.

This highlights the discrepancies between real-life crime and its portrayal in media.

265
Q

How do cultural criminologists argue the media affects crime?

A

They argue the media turn crime into a commodity that people desire.

This perspective emphasizes the consumption of crime imagery rather than just its production.

266
Q

True or False: There is substantial evidence that media violence has a large negative effect on audiences.

A

False

Most studies find that media violence has a small and limited negative effect.

267
Q

What is a moral panic?

A

An exaggerated over-reaction by society to a perceived problem, often driven by media.

This can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy that amplifies the problem.

268
Q

What role do moral entrepreneurs play in the creation of moral panics?

A

They condemn groups and their behaviors, leading to societal reactions and calls for crackdowns.

These figures often include editors, politicians, and police chiefs.

269
Q

What is the relationship between media consumption and fear of crime according to Schlesinger and Tumber (1992)?

A

There is a correlation; heavy media consumers express greater fear of becoming victims.

This suggests media portrayal can influence public perception of crime.

270
Q

Fill in the blank: The mass media disseminate a standardized image of lifestyle, which accentuates the sense of _______ among poor and marginalized social groups.

A

relative deprivation

This concept explains how media portrayals can lead to feelings of inadequacy and social exclusion.

271
Q

What is one way the media might cause crime through imitation?

A

By providing deviant role models, resulting in ‘copycat’ behavior.

This highlights the potential influence of media figures on audience behavior.

272
Q

What is a moral panic?

A

A moral panic is a widespread feeling of fear or concern that some group or behavior poses a significant threat to societal values or interests.

273
Q

Who are considered moral entrepreneurs?

A

Moral entrepreneurs include editors, politicians, police chiefs, bishops, and other ‘respectable’ authorities.

274
Q

What is a deviance amplification spiral?

A

A deviance amplification spiral occurs when increased societal reactions to deviant behavior lead to more deviance, creating a cycle of escalating responses.

275
Q

What was the focus of Stanley Cohen’s book ‘Folk Devils and Moral Panics’?

A

Cohen examined the media’s role in creating a moral panic around the mods and rockers, two groups of working-class teenagers in the 1960s.

276
Q

What are the three elements of the media’s inventory of events during a moral panic according to Cohen?

A
  • Exaggeration and distortion
  • Prediction
  • Symbolisation
277
Q

What is symbolisation in the context of a moral panic?

A

Symbolisation refers to how the media creates symbols for groups (e.g., mods and rockers), which crystallize identities and highlight differences.

278
Q

True or False: Cohen argues that moral panics often occur during times of social change.

279
Q

What is a boundary crisis?

A

A boundary crisis is a period of uncertainty about acceptable and unacceptable behavior, often occurring during social change.

280
Q

What approach do Stuart Hall et al. take regarding moral panics?

A

They adopt a neo-Marxist approach, suggesting moral panics distract from capitalist crises and create divisions within the working class.

281
Q

Fill in the blank: Examples of folk devils and moral panics include _______.

A
  • Dangerous dogs
  • New Age travellers
  • Bogus asylum seekers
  • Child sexual abuse
  • Aids
  • Binge drinking
  • Mad cow disease
  • Single parents
282
Q

What is one criticism of the idea of moral panics?

A

It assumes societal reactions are always disproportionate, raising questions about who decides what constitutes a panic.

283
Q

How do McRobbie and Thornton (1995) view moral panics in late modern society?

A

They argue that moral panics are now routine and have less impact due to the lack of consensus on what is deviant.

284
Q

What is cyber-crime?

A

Cyber-crime refers to illegal or illicit activities conducted through global electronic networks.

285
Q

List the four categories of cybercrime identified by Wall (2001).

A
  • Cyber-trespass
  • Cyber-deception and theft
  • Cyber-pornography
  • Cyber-violence
286
Q

What challenges do authorities face in policing cyber-crime?

A

Challenges include the scale of the Internet, limited police resources, jurisdiction issues, and police culture prioritizing conventional crime.

287
Q

What is the global criminal economy as suggested by Manuel Castells?

A

The global criminal economy is worth over £1 trillion per annum and includes various forms of transnational organized crime.

288
Q

What types of trafficking are included in the global criminal economy?

A
  • Arms trafficking
  • Trafficking in nuclear materials
  • Smuggling of illegal immigrants
  • Trafficking in women and children
  • Sex tourism
  • Trafficking in body parts
  • Cyber-crimes
  • Green crimes
  • International terrorism
  • Smuggling of legal goods
289
Q

What has globalisation done to the patterns of crime according to Ian Taylor?

A

Globalisation has created greater inequality and rising crime by allowing market forces to operate freely.

290
Q

What are ‘crimes of globalisation’ as discussed by Rothe and Friedrichs?

A

Crimes of globalisation refer to the actions of international financial organizations imposing neoliberal policies on poorer countries.

291
Q

What do Rothe and Friedrichs argue about the World Bank’s structural adjustment programmes?

A

They impose pro-capitalist, neoliberal economic conditions on poor countries for loans, requiring cuts in health and education spending and privatization of public services.

This often creates conditions for crime, as seen in Rwanda’s 1994 genocide.

292
Q

What is the voting rights distribution among World Bank member countries?

A

Five countries - the USA, Japan, Germany, Britain, and France - hold over a third of the voting rights despite having 188 member countries.

This indicates dominance by major capitalist states.

293
Q

What is the concept of ‘glocal’ organization in crime according to Hobbs and Dunningham?

A

Crime works as a ‘glocal’ system, being locally based but with global connections.

Local contacts are needed to find opportunities and sell drugs, even with international links.

294
Q

What is ‘McMafia’ as described by Misha Glenny?

A

It refers to organizations that emerged in Russia and Eastern Europe after the fall of communism, characterized by economic self-interest and fluid alliances.

These organizations facilitated the rise of a new capitalist class in Russia.

295
Q

What is the primary cause of transnational organized crime linked to the Soviet Union’s collapse?

A

The deregulation of global markets following the Soviet Union’s break-up in 1989.

This allowed former officials to acquire resources cheaply and sell them at high prices.

296
Q

What are ‘green crimes’?

A

Crimes against the environment linked to globalisation and interconnected societies.

Examples include atmospheric pollution and illegal dumping of toxic waste.

297
Q

What does Ulrich Beck mean by ‘global risk society’?

A

A society where the major risks are human-made rather than natural, often involving environmental harm.

It emphasizes the need for a global perspective on risks like climate change.

298
Q

What are primary green crimes according to Nigel South?

A

Crimes resulting directly from the destruction and degradation of Earth’s resources, including:
* Air pollution
* Deforestation
* Species decline and animal abuse
* Water pollution

These crimes have significant impacts on ecosystems and human health.

299
Q

What are secondary green crimes?

A

Crimes that arise from the violation of regulations aimed at preventing environmental harm, such as:
* State violence against oppositional groups
* Hazardous waste and organized crime

These often involve governments breaking their own environmental regulations.

300
Q

What is the criticism of traditional criminology in relation to environmental issues?

A

It focuses only on actions that violate laws, often ignoring harmful actions that are legally permissible.

This limits the understanding of broader environmental harms.

301
Q

What is the difference between anthropocentric and ecocentric views of environmental harm?

A

Anthropocentric views prioritize human interests and economic growth, while ecocentric views emphasize the interdependence of humans and their environment.

Green criminology typically adopts an ecocentric perspective.

302
Q

What challenges does green criminology face?

A

Defining clear boundaries for its field of study due to its broader focus on harm rather than legally defined crimes.

Critics argue that this leads to subjective moral or political judgments.

303
Q

What is the broader concept of harms in criminology?

A

It focuses on harms rather than simply on legally defined crimes, making it hard to define the boundaries of its field of study.

This concept involves moral or political statements about which actions are regarded as wrong.

304
Q

What do Marxists and critical criminologists argue about traditional criminology?

A

They argue that traditional criminology focused on ‘crimes of the streets’ and ignored ‘crimes of the suites’ committed by big business.

This includes corporate crime and state crime.

305
Q

How do Penny Green and Tony Ward define state crime?

A

‘Illegal or deviant activities perpetrated by, or with the complicity of, state agencies.’

This includes all forms of crime committed by or on behalf of states to further their policies.

306
Q

What are the two reasons state crime is considered the most serious form of crime?

A
  1. The scale of state crime
  2. The state is the source of law

The state’s power allows it to inflict harm on a large scale and conceal its own crimes.

307
Q

What is the principle of national sovereignty?

A

It states that states are the supreme authority within their own borders, making it difficult for external authorities to intervene.

This applies to states guilty of crimes, including democracies.

308
Q

What are the four categories of state crime identified by Eugene McLaughlin?

A
  • Political crimes
  • Crimes by security and police forces
  • Economic crimes
  • Social and cultural crimes

These categories help illustrate different types of state crime.

309
Q

What defines genocide according to the UN?

A

Acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group.

The Rwandan genocide in 1994 is a significant example.

310
Q

What is an example of state-initiated corporate crime?

A

The Challenger space shuttle disaster in 1986.

Risky decisions by NASA and Morton Thiokol led to the explosion.

311
Q

What is an example of state-facilitated corporate crime?

A

The Deepwater Horizon oil rig disaster in 2010.

Government regulators failed to oversee corporate behavior adequately.

312
Q

What constitutes illegal wars under international law?

A

War can only be declared by the UN Security Council, except in cases of self-defense.

The US-led wars in Afghanistan and Iraq are often seen as illegal.

313
Q

What is Chambliss’s definition of state crime?

A

‘Acts defined by law as criminal and committed by state officials in pursuit of their jobs as representatives of the state.’

This definition is criticized for being inadequate.

314
Q

What is zemiology?

A

The study of harms, whether or not they are against the law.

Advocates argue it provides a single standard to identify harmful states.

315
Q

What does labeling theory suggest about state crime?

A

Whether an act constitutes a crime depends on whether the social audience defines it as a crime.

This highlights the socially constructed nature of state crime.

316
Q

What is the advantage of defining state crime based on international law?

A

It uses globally agreed definitions of state crime, avoiding personal definitions of harm.

International law is intentionally designed to deal with state crime.

317
Q

What is international law considered to be?

A

A social construction involving the use of power

This includes the influence of states and their interactions.

318
Q

What strategy did Japan use to oppose the international ban on whaling?

A

Concentrating foreign aid on impoverished microstates to bribe them to vote against the ban

This tactic involves leveraging economic assistance for political gain.

319
Q

What limitations does international law have?

A

Focuses largely on war crimes and crimes against humanity, neglecting state crimes like corruption

This reflects a narrow scope in addressing broader issues of state crime.

320
Q

Define human rights.

A

Natural rights and civil rights

Examples include the right to life, liberty, free speech, voting, privacy, fair trial, and education.

321
Q

How do Herman and Julia Schwendinger define state crime?

A

As the violation of people’s basic human rights by the state or its agents

This perspective emphasizes the state’s role in perpetrating injustice.

322
Q

What is one advantage of defining state crime in terms of human rights?

A

Virtually all states care about their human rights image, making them susceptible to ‘shaming’

This can leverage pressure on states to respect citizens’ rights.

323
Q

According to the Schwendingers, what should the role of a sociologist be?

A

To defend human rights, even against the state’s laws

This view challenges the traditional legal definitions of crime.

324
Q

True or False: Stanley Cohen agrees with the Schwendingers’ view on state crime.

A

False

Cohen criticizes the broad application of the definition, suggesting not all acts of economic exploitation are criminal.

325
Q

What factors do Green and Ward argue are critical for defining human rights?

A

Liberty and the ability to exercise it; malnourishment can be a denial of rights

This highlights the interconnectedness of basic needs and rights.

326
Q

What is the ‘authoritarian personality’ as identified by Adorno et al?

A

A personality type that shows a willingness to obey orders without question

This concept was explored in the context of individuals during the Second World War.

327
Q

What are ‘crimes of obedience’?

A

State crimes that require conformity to authority

This contrasts with traditional definitions of crime as deviance.

328
Q

List the three general features that produce crimes of obedience according to Kelman and Hamilton.

A
  • Authorisation
  • Routinisation
  • Dehumanisation

These features help explain how ordinary people can commit atrocities.

329
Q

What does Zygmunt Bauman argue about the Holocaust?

A

It was a product of modern rational-bureaucratic civilization, not a breakdown of it

This view highlights how modernity facilitated organized mass atrocities.

330
Q

What is the ‘culture of denial’ in relation to state crimes?

A

The ways states conceal or justify their human rights abuses

This includes various stages of denial and justification for actions.

331
Q

What are the three stages in Cohen’s spiral of state denial?

A
  • Stage 1: ‘It didn’t happen’
  • Stage 2: ‘If it did happen, it is something else’
  • Stage 3: ‘Even if it is what you say it is, it’s justified’

These stages illustrate how states respond to accusations of human rights violations.

332
Q

What is situational crime prevention?

A

A pre-emptive approach focusing on reducing opportunities for crime

This strategy does not aim to improve societal institutions but to manage immediate crime environments.

333
Q

List the three features of situational crime prevention measures.

A
  • Directed at specific crimes
  • Involves managing or altering the immediate environment
  • Aims at increasing effort and risks of committing crime

These features are essential for understanding how situational crime prevention works.

334
Q

What is one criticism of situational crime prevention?

A

It may simply displace crime rather than reduce it

Displacement can occur in various forms, including spatial and temporal.

335
Q

What is the ‘broken windows’ theory in crime prevention?

A

The idea that visible signs of disorder can lead to more serious crime

This theory emphasizes the importance of maintaining order to prevent crime escalation.

336
Q

What is zero tolerance policing?

A

A strategy where police proactively tackle even minor signs of disorder

This approach aims to prevent crime by addressing small issues before they escalate.

337
Q

What is the key idea of Wilson and Kelling regarding disorder?

A

Disorder and absence of control lead to crime, necessitating a dual strategy of environmental improvement and zero tolerance policing

This approach emphasizes immediate action against disorder to prevent further decline.

338
Q

What are the two main strategies proposed by Wilson and Kelling to combat disorder?

A
  • Environmental improvement
  • Zero tolerance policing
339
Q

What is zero tolerance policing?

A

A proactive approach that tackles even minor disorder to prevent serious crime

This strategy shifts police focus from merely reacting to crime to preventing it.

340
Q

What was the outcome of the ‘Clean Car Program’ in New York’s subway?

A

Graffiti was largely removed from the subway

Cars with graffiti were taken out of service immediately.

341
Q

What significant drop in crime occurred in New York between 1993 and 1996?

A

50% drop in the homicide rate, from 1,927 to 986

342
Q

What factors complicate the assessment of zero tolerance policing’s effectiveness?

A
  • Increase of 7,000 NYPD officers
  • General decline in crime rates across major US cities
  • Economic improvements and job creation
  • Decrease in availability of crack cocaine
  • Improved medical emergency services
343
Q

What is the primary aim of community crime prevention strategies?

A

To tackle the root causes of offending by addressing social conditions

Strategies focus on long-term prevention rather than just opportunity removal.

344
Q

What is the Perry pre-school project?

A

An experimental program for disadvantaged Black children that showed long-term positive outcomes in crime rates and education

It resulted in a significant reduction in arrests and higher graduation rates.

345
Q

What is a criticism of the crime problem definition discussed in the text?

A

It overlooks powerful and environmental crimes

Focus is often on low-level or interpersonal crimes.

346
Q

How is surveillance defined in the context of crime control?

A

The monitoring of public behavior for the purposes of population or crime control

347
Q

What historical example illustrates early forms of surveillance?

A

Monitoring during the 14th century plague to control movement

Individuals were appointed to track the spread of the disease.

348
Q

What is Michel Foucault’s concept of sovereign power?

A

Control asserted by inflicting visible punishment on the body, such as public executions

349
Q

What is the difference between sovereign power and disciplinary power?

A

Sovereign power governs bodies through visible punishment; disciplinary power governs minds through surveillance

350
Q

What is the Panopticon?

A

A prison design allowing guards to observe prisoners without being seen, promoting self-surveillance among inmates

351
Q

What does Foucault argue about the role of experts in disciplinary power?

A

Experts apply specialized knowledge to correct deviant behavior

352
Q

What is the ‘carceral archipelago’?

A

A series of institutions subjecting individuals to disciplinary power, extending beyond prisons to schools, factories, and more

353
Q

What criticism is made about Foucault’s view on punishment?

A

He oversimplifies the transition from corporal punishment to disciplinary power and overlooks emotional aspects of punishment

354
Q

What is the concept of ‘actuarial justice’ introduced by Feeley and Simon?

A

A focus on groups and risk calculations to prevent future offending, rather than rehabilitating individuals

355
Q

What is ‘social sorting’ in the context of surveillance?

A

Categorizing people to treat them differently based on perceived risk levels

This can lead to entire communities being placed under suspicion.

356
Q

What is a potential problem with actuarial justice?

A

It can create self-fulfilling prophecies where profiling leads to higher arrest rates for targeted groups

357
Q

What does the term ‘sousveillance’ refer to?

A

Surveillance from below, where ordinary citizens monitor those in power

358
Q

Which group is most likely to carry a weapon according to profiling data?

A

Black inner-city males

This profiling may lead to disproportionate stopping and targeting by police.

359
Q

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of crime statistics?

A

When targeted groups appear more frequently in crime statistics, reinforcing the validity of profiling

This occurs even if all groups have the same likelihood of carrying weapons.

360
Q

What technological capability did a major city center CCTV system have according to Ditton et al (1999)?

A

Zooming in on vehicle tax discs from hundreds of metres away

However, this capability was not utilized to check motorists’ offences.

361
Q

According to Norris and Armstrong (1999), who are disproportionately targeted by CCTV operators?

A

Young Black males

This targeting is based on stereotypical beliefs about offenders.

362
Q

What are the two main justifications for punishment?

A
  • Reduction
  • Retribution
363
Q

What does the reduction justification for punishment aim to achieve?

A

Prevention of future crime

This includes deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation.

364
Q

Fill in the blank: The idea that punishment can reform offenders is known as _______.

A

rehabilitation

365
Q

What does incapacitation refer to in terms of punishment?

A

Removing the offender’s capacity to offend again

This can include imprisonment or execution.

366
Q

What is retribution in the context of punishment?

A

Paying back for crimes already committed

It reflects society’s outrage rather than preventing future crimes.

367
Q

According to Durkheim, what is the function of punishment in society?

A

To uphold social solidarity and reinforce shared values

Punishment expresses society’s moral outrage.

368
Q

What are the two types of justice identified by Durkheim?

A
  • Retributive justice
  • Restitutive justice
369
Q

What characterizes retributive justice?

A

Severe punishment motivated by collective conscience in traditional societies

It responds to moral outrage.

370
Q

What characterizes restitutive justice?

A

Repairing damage caused by crime through compensation in modern societies

It aims to restore social equilibrium.

371
Q

According to Marxists, what is the function of punishment?

A

To maintain the existing social order and defend ruling-class property

Punishment serves the interests of the ruling class.

372
Q

What is the dominant form of punishment under capitalism according to Rusche and Kirchheimer?

A

Imprisonment

The penal system reflects the economic base of society.

373
Q

What significant change occurred in the perception of imprisonment following the Enlightenment?

A

Imprisonment began to be seen as a form of punishment in itself

Previously, it was mainly for holding offenders prior to punishment.

374
Q

What does ‘populist punitiveness’ refer to?

A

The trend of politicians seeking electoral popularity through tougher sentences

This has led to a significant increase in prison populations.

375
Q

How does the prison population in England and Wales compare to other Western European countries?

A

It is higher than almost any other country in Western Europe

For instance, 130 out of every 100,000 people are imprisoned.

376
Q

Fill in the blank: The USA has a higher imprisonment rate than any other country, with _______ prisoners per 100,000 people.

377
Q

What does David Garland argue regarding mass incarceration?

A

It represents the systematic imprisonment of whole groups, particularly young Black males

This trend has escalated since the 1970s.

378
Q

What is transcarceration?

A

The trend of individuals shifting between different locked agencies throughout their lives

This includes moving between care, young offenders’ institutions, and adult prisons.

379
Q

What is a major goal in dealing with young offenders according to earlier approaches?

A

Diversion from the criminal justice system

This aims to prevent the self-fulfilling prophecy of becoming serious criminals.

380
Q

What are the three features of positivist victimology according to Miers (1989)?

A
  • Identify factors producing patterns in victimization
  • Focus on interpersonal crimes of violence
  • Identify victims contributing to their own victimization
381
Q

Who identified 13 characteristics of victims that make them more vulnerable to victimization?

A

Hans Von Hentig

This includes traits such as being female or elderly.

382
Q

What is critical victimology based on?

A

Conflict theories such as Marxism and feminism

It focuses on structural factors that increase vulnerability to victimization.

383
Q

What is the ideological function of the state’s failure to label victims?

A

It conceals the extent of victimization and its real causes

This can deny powerless victims any redress.

384
Q

What are ‘safety crimes’?

A

‘Safety crimes’ are where employers’ violations of the law lead to death or injury to workers, often blamed on ‘accident prone’ workers.

This concept highlights the denial of ‘victim status’ to the worker and shifts blame away from employers.

385
Q

What is the ideological function of ‘failure to label’ or ‘de-labelling’ in victimology?

A

It conceals the true extent of victimisation and its real causes, hiding the crimes of the powerful and denying victims any redress.

This process affects how the powerless are perceived and acknowledged by the state.

386
Q

What does critical victimology disregard?

A

It disregards the role victims may play in bringing victimisation on themselves through their own choices or offending.

It emphasizes the constructed nature of ‘victim’ status by power dynamics.

387
Q

Which social group is most likely to be victimised by crime?

A

The poorest groups are more likely to be victimised.

This is evidenced by higher crime rates in areas of high unemployment and deprivation.

388
Q

What did a survey of 300 homeless people reveal about their victimization?

A

They were 12 times more likely to have experienced violence than the general population.

Additionally, one in ten had been urinated on while sleeping rough.

389
Q

Fill in the blank: The youngest age group at risk of murder is _______.

A

infants under one

390
Q

Who are more likely to feel under-protected yet over-controlled by police?

A

Minority ethnic groups, the young, and the homeless.

This highlights systemic issues within law enforcement.

391
Q

What is repeat victimisation?

A

Repeat victimisation refers to the fact that if you have been a victim once, you are very likely to be one again.

About 60% of the population have not been victims in a year, while 4% account for 44% of crimes.

392
Q

What are some impacts of victimisation on victims?

A

Impacts include:
* disrupted sleep
* feelings of helplessness
* increased security-consciousness
* difficulties in social functioning

These effects depend on the nature of the crime.

393
Q

What is secondary victimisation?

A

Secondary victimisation is when individuals suffer further victimisation at the hands of the criminal justice system.

Feminists argue this is particularly true for rape victims.

394
Q

True or False: Fear of victimisation is often rational.

A

False

Surveys show that fear of crime is often disproportionate to actual victimisation rates.

395
Q

What structural threat do feminists argue women face regarding fear of crime?

A

The structural threat of patriarchal violence.

This perspective shifts focus from women’s fear to their actual safety.