theorists

Question 1

media language theories

what is steve neale’s theory?

Answer 1

GENRE THEORY

Steve Neale’s theory is that genres are examples of repetition and difference. He states that in order for a film to be a certain genre it must comply with that genres stereotypes and rules in order to classified in that genre.

He suggests that genres are dominated by repetition (conventions) but are also marked by difference, variation and change. He suggests the idea that genres change, develop and vary as they borrow from and overlap with one another. According to Neale, genres are constructed through repetition of similar features, but also marked by change and difference to keep the audience interested

Question 2

media language theories

what is roland barthes theory, include the codes

Answer 2

SEMIOTICS
He suggests that texts communicate their meanings through a process of signification.
He developed five codes which are the signifiers that perform different functions in texts:
action code = refers to any action or event that indicates that something else will happen.
enigma code = some form of info is withheld from the audience, creating an enigma. the story is not fully explained and mysteries are created to keep the audience guessing.
semantic code = refers to the connotations within the story that give additional meaning beyond literal descriptions.
symbolic code = acts at a wider level of the semantic code . symbolism is used within the text to represent broader ideas or qualities eg. pathetic fallacy
cultural code = refers to an external body of knowledge eg. cultural, scientific, historical or political, which add meaning to the text.

Question 3

media language theories

What is Tzvetan Todorov’s theory

Answer 3

NARRATOLOGY

Todorov suggests that all narratives share a basic structure that involves a movement from one state of equilibrium to another. He suggests that these two states of equilibrium are separated by a period of imbalance or disequilibrium which needs to be resolved. The way in which narratives are resolved can have a particular ideological significance.

Question 4

media language theories

What is Claude Levi-Strauss’s theory

Answer 4

STRUCTURALISM

The majority of narratives in media forms such as books and film contain opposing main characters. These binary opposites help to thicken the plot and further the narrative; and introduce contrast.

Levi-Strauss suggests that meaning is created, and narrative progresses through a set of binary oppositions; pairs of opposites that create conflict within a narrative.

Question 5

representation theories - gender

What is David Gauntlett’s theory

Answer 5

IDENTITY THEORY

Gauntlett suggests that the media provide us with tools or resources that we use to construct our own identities. He suggests that in the past the media tended to convey singular, straightforward messages about ideal types of male and female identities, however, the media today offer us a more diverse range of stars, icons, and characters from whom we may pick and mix ideas

Question 6

representation theories - gender

What is Laura mulvey’s theory
Include, scopophilia and objectification

Answer 6

THE MALE GAZE THEORY

The male gaze theory suggests that women are objectified, in film particularly, because heterosexual men are in control of the camera.
According to this theory women are considered the passive gender - to be looked at, and men are considered the active gender - to do the looking.

scopophilia
The notion of looking but from a heightened sexual perspective. Often involves a direct gaze. Many media texts will emphasise and focus on specific attributes of the female body.
objectification
Where women are made to be seen as objects. This is achieved through the use of close ups and extreme close ups of the body.

Question 7

representation theories - gender

What is liesbet van zoonen’s theory?

Answer 7

FEMINIST THEORY 1

Van Zoonen argues that gender is constructed and that its meaning varies dependent on cultural and historical context. She suggests that masculinity as well as femininity is constructed – and that the codes used to construct men ‘as a spectacle’ are different.

• The idea that gender is constructed through discourse (communication through the media) and its meaning varies according to cultural and historical context.
• The idea that the display of women’s bodies as objects to be looked at is a core element of western patriarchal culture.
• The idea that in mainstream culture the visual and narrative codes that are used to construct the male body as a spectacle differ from those used to objectify the female body.

Question 8

representation theories - gender

What is bell hooks’ theory?

Answer 8

FEMINIST THEORY 2

bell hooks argues that inequality is not just related to one’s gender, and an intersectional approach must be taken to fully understand inequality.

• feminism is a struggle to end sexist/patriarchal oppression and the ideology of domination
• feminism is a political commitment rather than a lifestyle choice
• race and class, as well as sex determine the extent to which individuals are exploited, discriminated against or oppressed.

Question 9

representation theories - gender

What is Judith butler’s theory?

Answer 9

GENDER PERFORMATIVITY

Gender is a performance; it’s what you do at particular times, rather than a universal who you are.
We are not just acting it like in a play but rather actively constructing it as we act it out. If we don’t follow our ‘roles’ gender will not exist.

females and males are often portrayed in the way ‘society’ wants them to. We rarely see women in sporting magazines and men in makeup magazines. This not only stops from normalising men and women to be any way they want but also shows no representation to the people who are brave enough to go against society and give support to those who want to also act in any way they want.

Question 10

representation theories - gender

What is Naomi wolf’s theory?

Answer 10

BEAUTY MYTH/STANDARDS
“To live in a culture in which women are routinely naked where men aren’t is to learn inequality in little ways all day long.”
As well the objectification of women, the imagery being used is considered to be unattainable…
Wolf argues in The Beauty Myth’ that media images present society with a ‘beauty myth’ which communicates an ideological message that women should treat their bodies as a ‘project in constant need of improvement.’

Question 11

representation theories - gender

What is Hilary Radner’s theory?

Answer 11

PSYCHOFEMME/MASCULINE FEMININITY

Fierce, tough and resourceful female action heroines have rejected the violence shown towards women by becoming equally (if not more so) violent than men, adopting many of the tough characteristics usually associated with men.
Often these women still retain sex-appeal and many of the narrow stereotypes, as well as masculinity which shows them handling and using weapons and an indifference to violence.

The Psychofemme Stereotype: (Cont.)

Weapons are used to facilitate extreme violence and allow them to fight - and defeat the antagonist.
The antagonist is not usually male. It is usually a machine or an alien of some form.
However they will often ‘save’ male companions.
Male gaze camerawork will often be used with the female heroine’ adhering to western society’s narrow stereotype of beauty.

Question 12

representation theories - gender

What is Donald Mosher and mark sirkin’s theory?

Answer 12

HYPER-MASCULINITY

One of the first studies of hyper-masculinity was conducted by Donald Mosher and Mark Sirkin in 1984. Mosher and Sirkin have operationally defined hyper-masculinity or the ‘macho personality’ as consisting of the following three variables:

• a callous sexual attitude toward women
• the belief that violence is manly
• the experience of danger as exciting

Question 13

representation theories - gender

What is Jackson katz’s theory?

Answer 13

VIOLENT MASCULINITY

Jackson Katz critiques the effect of media representations of masculinity on young males and their perception of what it is to be ‘a man’. He discusses this notion of a Violent Masculine Representation in his documentary.

“One of the most important places they learn it is the powerful and pervasive media system which provides a steady stream of images that define manhood as connected with dominance, power and control.”.

Question 14

representation theories - gender

What is the new man/metro sexuality theory?

Answer 14

New Man: This was a term introduced to describe a new breed of men. These men rejected sexist attitudes, were in touch with their ‘feminine side’ and were therefore not afraid to be sensitive. These men were also seen in more domestic roles.
Men, as well as women are given aspirational and unrealistic role models to emulate. Men too, have to be concerned about their weight and body image and buy into an unattainable lifestyle through the representations presented to them.

Metrosexual = Describes a man who is meticulous about grooming and appearance
Typically spends a significant amount of time and money shopping as part of this

Question 15

youth theories

What is giroux’s theory?

Answer 15

Giroux’s views show how the youth are mistreated within the media.
Describing them as an empty category explains that adults do not really understand what it is like to be a youth in this generation, therefore they project their own ideas of what they believe the representation is.
By looking at this theory we are able to see that the representation of youth is moulded through what adults believe and think.
This would then lead to an uprising of stereotypes used in and by the media which causes moral panic.

Question 16

youth theories

What is Acland’s theory?

Answer 16

Acland suggests that media representations show youths as delinquents (committing crimes) in order to enhance hegemony (dominance/leadership). This is done by creating an ideal of ‘norm’ adult and youth behaviour which contrasts deviant youth behaviour which is represented as unacceptable.

This leads to an ‘Ideology of Protection.’
This is the idea that young people need constant surveillance and monitoring. This happens because youth is the time when young people learn about social roles and values, and allows the state to make sure they conform to dominant values.
This therefore affects the representations as the adults see youths as being reckless and thus need to keep enforcing that these actions are bad.
By enforcing this, they reinforce the hegemony of how youths should not behave when they reach adulthood. This means that there are more negative stories in the media.

Question 17

youth theories

What is Hebdige’s theory?

Answer 17

Hebdige argues that the representation of youth is very limited. Youths are either shown as trouble or fun and there is no in-between which suggests that media representations of youths are not realistic.
This would affect the representation of youths dramatically. Due to them being represented only as either fun or troublemakers, we never get to see the good and hardworking teens of society who just fade in to the background.
This therefore makes adults believe that all youths behave in this manner which gives youths an unrealistic representation.

Question 18

ethnicity theories

What is Alvarado’s theory?

Answer 18

RACIAL REPRESENTATIONS

Alvarado noted that there are 4 themes in racial representations in the media. These are as:
Exotic
Ethnic groups are seen as exotic or being the other’ and are represented as being strange or unusual.

Dangerous
Minorities are sometimes represented as a threat to society. The news and other media may present these groups as taking advantage of a society.

Humorous
In the 70s, race was a major vehicle for comedy. Programmes removed the ‘threat’ of different races by making them the butt of the jokes.

Pitied
Representation of ethnic groups may also be as deprived groups or victims of natural disasters like famine, floods and sometimes conflicts. Images of children are often used to gain sympathy.

Question 19

ethnicity theories

What is Paul Gilroy’s theory?

Answer 19

POSTCOLONIAL THEORY

The idea that colonial discourses continue to inform contemporary attitudes to race and ethnicity in the postcolonial era (after the end of WW2.)
The idea that civilisationism constructs racial hierarchies and sets up binary oppositions based on notions of otherness or ‘difference’. It create a notion of ‘Us versus Them’.

Colonial refers to any country which is owned by another Empire.

Question 20

ethnicity theories

What is Stuart Halls theory?
(Representation)

Answer 20

REPRESENTATION THEORY

Stuart Hall’s theory of representation argues that within a media text, there will oftentimes not be a true representation of events, people, places, or history.

Question 21

audience theories

What is the hypodermic needle theory?

Answer 21

In conjunction with active theory, this theory suggests that the media is like a syringe which injects ideas, attitudes and beliefs into the audience who, as a powerless mass have little choice but to be influenced by its content and ideologies.
Passive audiences accept the preferred message delivered in mainstream, mass media products and their behaviour and opinions are altered because of it.

The problems occur when media products reinforce a message which goes against a society’s mainstream ideology. Often these cause what are called a ‘moral panic.

Question 22

audience theories

What is Blumer and katz’s theory?

Answer 22

USER AND GRATIFICATION THEORY

The Uses & Gratifications theory suggests that the audience determines what to do with the media rather than the media simply influencing the audience directly.
When an audience actively seeks media, they want it to gratify a need or be useful to them. Each person uses it to meet their individual needs.

Personal Identity
Information & Education
Entertainment & Diversion
Social Interaction

Question 23

audience theories

What is Albert bandura’s theory?

Answer 23

MEDIA EFFECTS

Psychologist, Albert Bandura theorised that the media can implant ideas in the mind of the audience directly (much akin to Hypodermic Needle). He says that audiences acquire attitudes, emotional responses and new styles of conduct and behaviour through modelling that which they see in the media. Bandura asserts that media representations of transgressive behaviour, such as violence or physical aggression, can lead audience members to imitate those forms of behaviour.

Question 24

audience theories

What is the two step flow theory?

Answer 24

This theory asserts that information from the media moves in two distinct stages: First, the media will influence opinion leaders who in turn will influence the masses (through their existing
‘fanbase.)
Opinion Leaders are those who may affect the way in which an audience interprets the media. They have the power to influence the audience to think a certain way about a certain story or event.

Question 25

audience theories

What is Stuart hall’s theory?
(Reception)

Answer 25

Hall proposed that audiences reception to and interpretation of messages encoded within media texts was dependent on their individual, social and cultural experiences at a given time.
This is often referred to as situated culture: the ‘situation’ of the audience at the time of consuming a media text.

Other factors which affect the way in which an audience responds to a media text include: gender, age, ethnicity, culture

Audience responses to positioning:

Dominant/Preferred Reading/Position:
This is when the audience uncritically accepts the preferred or intended meaning of the text

Negotiated Reading/Position:
The most common reading. Where an audience will accept some parts) of the reading and reject others. This usually occurs when an audience has specific knowledge about a topic being covered.

Oppositional Reading/Position:
The audience rejects the message of the text and outlines their reason for opposition.
This may be related to the culture, age or gender, amongst other factors.

Question 26

audience theories

What is Henry Jenkins theory?

Answer 26

FANDOM THEORY

According to Henry Jenkins, fans are devoted followers of media texts who actively engage with the products to construct their own meanings and interpretations beyond the original message

Question 27

audience theories

What is Clay Shirky’s theory?

Answer 27

END OF AUDIENCE THEORY

Shirky argues that audiences are no longer passive due to the way social media operates. Technology has changed our behaviour; instead of just consuming media passively, we also contribute to it. In his argument, no audience is passive ( we wont watch things and let them wash over us not really taking thing in). He believes audiences are now more active, wanting to interact with the media (wanting to interact and share and to like and comment, because of technology.)

Question 28

industry theories

What is Curran and seaton’s theory?

Answer 28

POWER AND MEDIA INDUSTRIES

• The idea that the media is controlled by a small number of companies primarily driven by the logic of profit and
  power.
• Media concentration generally limits or inhibits variety, creativity and quality.
• More socially diverse patterns of ownership help to create the conditions for more varied and adventurous media platforms.

Question 29

industry theories

What is livingstone and lunt’s theory?

Answer 29

REGULATION

Changes and improvements in media technologies and in how digital media is produced, distributed, and marketed, have made media more difficult to regulate using traditional approaches.

• The idea that there is an underlying struggle in recent regulation policy between the need to further the interests of citizens (by offering protection from harmful or offensive material) and the need to further the interests of consumers (by ensuring choice, value for money and market competition).
• The idea that the increasing power of global media corporations, together with the rise of convergent media technologies and transformations in the production, distribution and marketing of digital media, have placed traditional approaches to media regulation at risk.

Question 30

industry theories

What is David hesmondhalgh’s theory?

Answer 30

CULTURAL INDUSTRIES

• The idea that cultural industry companies try to minimise risk and maximise audiences through vertical and horizontal integration, and by formatting their cultural products (e.g. through the use of stars, genres and serials).
• The idea that the largest companies or conglomerates now operate across a number of different industries.

Question 31

What is Richard Dyer’s theory?

Answer 31

the star theory
1. The star is a construction
Dyer states the star is not a real person. This is done through magazines, interviews, music videos, etc. the music industry creates a persona or image the artist must portray

2. The star is an ideology
   Stars represent certain social groups and views and will therefore create certain images. As a result, fans may try to copy their style and adopt similar values.
3. The star is a commodity
   Stars are created in order to make a profit though music, concert sales, and merchandise. Record labels create similar stars by looking at patterns and tends of what sells.

Star meaning singer etc.

Question 32

What is Andrew Goodwin’s 6 characteristics of music videos

Answer 32

1. There is a relationship between the lyrics and the visuals, with the visuals illustrating, amplifying or contradicting the lyrics
2. There is a relationship between the music and the visuals, with the visuals illustrating, amplifying or contradicting the music.
3. Music videos are often constructed by the link between the visuals and the song, plus the artist.
4. Relationships are built between these in the video, and the close-ups of the artists gives them the representation and publicity they require.
5. Voyeurism is used to increase the videos attractiveness, particularly to males, whilst intertextuality is often employed in humorous videos.
6. Inter textual references - to other music videos or films and TV texts - provide further gratification and pleasure for the viewers/fans

Question 33

What is Ferdinand de Saussure’s theory

Answer 33

GENRE THEORY

Ferdinand de Saussure’s Signs & Semiotics

Semiotics examines how signs convey meaning in different contexts. It explores the relationship between signs, language, and culture. For instance, a red octagon-shaped sign (signifier) on the road signifies “stop” (signified), conveying a universally understood message

The signifier is a simple form of sign, for example, a photo or word gesture

The signified is the signifiers meaning or mental concept associated with it for example a rose equals beauty

Question 34

What is Vladimir Propp’s theory

Answer 34

Character types

Propp argued that stories are character driven and that plots develop from the decisions and actions of characters and how they function in a story. He claimed characters could be classified into certain roles that progress a story.

Question 35

What is Jean Baudrillard’s theory

Answer 35

Postmodernism

Baudrillard described hyperreality as “the generation by models of a real without origin or reality”.
Hyperreality is an inability of consciousness to distinguish reality from a simulation of reality, especially in advanced postmodern societies. Hyperreality is seen as a condition of what is real and what is fiction are blended together so there is no clear distinction to where one ends and the other begins.

** blood boundary between real and the imagined, distinction between media and reality has collapsed, reality mediated through stimulated images and representations (hyperreality). Post-modernism is sceptical about the advances of modernism leading to cynical interpretations of culture found in satire.”

Question 36

What is Marshall McLuhan’s theory

Answer 36

Global village

Word is metaphorically getting smaller due to media saturation and the Internet. Representation of races, genders and class are becoming internationally globalised. Cultures are emerging and regional cultural identity is Americanised.