Theories & Questions

Question 1

Distortions

Answer 1

• distortion rule: procedures used to make our observations should not introduce distortions:
  
  1. From instruments used for measurements
  2. From observer/experimenter bias
  3. From sampling procedures
  4. From the environment

Question 2

Observer bias

Answer 2

• occurs during the experiment/observation
• giving clues to subject or misinterpreting behaviours
• can occur during recording or analysis of data (especially during times of uncertainty)
• often unconscious

Question 3

Replication

Answer 3

• basic idea of scientific experimental research is replication (to judge reliability) not statistical significance
• relevant to case study research

Question 4

Paradigm

Answer 4

Set of laws, theories, methods and applications that form a scientific research tradition

Question 5

Theory

Answer 5

• A collection of hypotheses about a specific phenomenon

- a set of assumptions about the causes of a behaviour and the rules that specify how the causes operate

Question 6

Model

Answer 6

-a specific implementation of a theory

Question 7

Principle

Answer 7

A generally accepted “fact” but it is not always tested

Question 8

Rule

Answer 8

-a generally accepted process or pattern, sometimes mathematically defined

Question 9

Law

Answer 9

Substantially verified

Question 10

Hypothesis

Answer 10

• a statement used to test a theory or model

- a testable statement about the relation between variables

Question 11

Quantitative theories

Answer 11

• mathematically/statistically inspired
• relationship between variables and constants are investigated
• rules, formulas, computational models are used

Question 12

Qualitative theories

Answer 12

• verbal statements
• discourse based
• variables can be discussed, but not necessarily mathematically evaluated

Question 13

Theories: levels of description

Answer 13

• descriptive theories: describe relationships between variables, no explanations given
• analogical theories: the relationships between variables explained via analogies and metaphors
• fundamental theories: complex new constructs and concepts are suggested

Question 14

Domain or scope of theories

Answer 14

• can be broad or narrow

- eg. Theory of evolution vs super-male testosterone theory of autism

Question 15

Roles of theory in science

Answer 15

• to describe phenomena
• to understand phenomena: finding the cause
• to predict phenomena
• explaining phenomena: organizing and interpreting results
• to generate research: heuristic value of theories

Question 16

A good theory:

Answer 16

1. Can account for the data collected
2. Has explanatory relevance (logical soundness)
3. Is testable: can be verified/confirmed or disconfirmed
   Testable=falsifiable
4. Predicts novel events
5. Is parsimonious (simple)

Question 17

Steps in developing theories

Answer 17

1. Defining the scope of the theory
2. Reviewing the literature
3. Formulating the theory
4. Establishing predictive validity
5. Testing the theory empirically

Question 18

Intervening variables

Answer 18

• a hypothetical variable used to explain causal links between other variables
• cannot be observed in an experiment
• inferred, summary of empirical data; operationally defined

Question 19

Hypothetical construct

Answer 19

• an explanatory variable which is not directly observable
• eg. Concept of intelligence and motivation are used to explain phenomena in psych but neither is directly observable
• inferred but untested
• not operationally defined
• properties and implications not demonstrated in empirical research

Question 20

Hypotheses

Answer 20

• asking questions = formulating hypotheses
• tentative explanation
• includes explanation or statement about relationship between two or more variables
• should be testable

Question 21

Steps in experimental research

Answer 21

1. Ask a question: from data, observations, theories etc. Develop research idea
2. Make preliminary observations: pilot project, start to formulate hypoth.
3. Make predictions from hypotheses that can be tested
4. Identify variables to be measured; define the problem; give operational + ostensively definitions
5. Select a research approach (correlational, observational etc)
6. Select subjects/participants etc
7. Observations and measurements: choose suitable environment, equipment, sampling method, recording etc
8. Collect sufficient data: enough subjects etc to validate hypotheses
9. Statistical analysis: exploratory or confirmatory data analysis; descriptive/inferential analysis
10. Report you results

Question 22

Alternative approaches: Beysian

Answer 22

• prior probabilities ( as opposed to frequentist approach)

- new inductivism

Question 23

Alternative approaches: strong inference

Answer 23

• inductive inference
• process of elimination: develop several alternative explanations and test all predictions
• works well with high control in an experimental context
• popular in molecular biology
• works well with precise conditions
• reduces chances of a confirmation bias (tendency to look for confirmatory information and ignore contradictory info)
• to devise alternative hypotheses: use 2 preliminary phases before experiment:
  
  1. Exploratory phase: prelim observations and tests
  2. Pilot phase: mini-experiment with small sample