Intro Flashcards
1
Q
What is science
A
- Bordens & Abbott: a set of methods used to collect information about phenomena in a particular area
- Harrington: an interconnected series of concepts and conceptual schemes that have developed as a result of observation, experimentation and are fruitful of further experimentation.
2
Q
Scientific explanations are:
A
- Empirical (show me the data and controlled)
- Rational
- Testable
- Parsimonious: simple explanation first
- General
- Tentative
- Rigorously evaluated
3
Q
Other types of explanations
A
- pseudoscientific
- common sense explanations
- belief-based
4
Q
Pseudoscientific explanations
A
- Konrad and Lorenz (ethnologist), Sigmund Freud, William McDougall
- aggression is an instinct
- tautology: circular explanation
- aggressive behaviour stems from aggressive instinct, and aggressive instinct causes aggressive behaviour
5
Q
Methods of inquiry
A
- Tenacity
- Intuition
- Faith
- Authority
- Rational
- Empirical
6
Q
Method of tenacity
A
Based on beliefs, habits or superstitions
Belief perseverance
7
Q
Method of intuition
A
Hunch or gut feeling
8
Q
Method of authority
A
- only useful in early stages of research
- from experts
- common in history
9
Q
Rational method
A
- from rationalism
- based on logic
- used in philosophy
- essential in planning of research
10
Q
Empirical method
A
- based on data
- what this course is about
11
Q
Eastern European tradition
A
- dialectic thinking/reasoning (Kant, Hegel, Marx, Engels)
- a method: thesis, antithesis, synthesis
- an explanation for historical: sometimes explains changes in science
12
Q
Dialectic Changes (group selection theory)
A
- early years (thesis): group selection theory
- later years (antithesis): kin selection theory
- modern perspective (synthesis): multi-level selection
- illustrates the move from polarized stances to an even middle
13
Q
Persistence of theories: popper
A
- falsifiability: falsification of scientific data/theories; main method of verification
- his philosophy in science: critical rationalism, falsification
- rejects: classical empiricism, observationalist, or inductivist approach
14
Q
Persistence of theories: Kuhn
A
- paradigms
- theories persist and endure time in unjustified ways sometimes (lack of supporting counter evidence)
- Kuhn: theories die with their theorists
- cause: the massive life-long investment, financial investment, and time and money spent convincing granting agencies etc
15
Q
Persistence of theories: imre lakatos
A
- research programs important in the context of falsification (not theories or hypotheses)
- progressive research programs
- degenerating research programs
- synthesis of popper’s empirical validity focus and Kuhn’s perspective on conventional consistency and persistence
16
Q
7 dichotomous approaches to science
A
- Fundamental vs Applied
- Experimental vs Non-experimental
- Deductive vs Inductive
- Nomothetic vs Idiographic
- Theoretical (theory driven) vs A-theoretical (data-driven)
- Diachronic (historical) vs Synchronic
- Quantitative vs Qualitative
17
Q
Fundamental vs Applied
A
- before 90s countries that were focused on applied research were typically poor (switched now)
- problem because we need fundamental research to have applied research
- applied research can be bad if not based on GOOD fundamental research
18
Q
Experimental vs Non-experimental
A
- experimental: control over the assignment of participants (controlled conditions)
- Quasi-experimental: no control over assignment of participants (no randomization). Sometimes no controlled conditions. Often associated with time series, pre/post test, single case experiments etc
- non-experimental:correlational and descriptive
19
Q
Descriptive research
A
- observational: counting cells, animals etc. Participant observation (anthropology). Naturalistic observations (ethology). Obtrusive or non reactive observations (physical traces, archives).
- case studies: clinical (neuropsychology)
- surveys/interviews: personality, social psych etc
- others: content analysis, meta-analysis
20
Q
Correlational research
A
- can help generate new hypotheses
- correlation to causation
21
Q
Non-experimental research
A
- correlation vs causation: how to use correlational research to generate experimental research
- small n research: how to use small n research to generate experimental data
- anecdotal data, unsystematic observations, pilot studies often initiate hard core experimental studies
22
Q
Ecological validity
A
- definition: an experiment has ecological validity if it reflects real life situations or the data that would be obtained in real life settings
- difficult to obtain
- exceptions: naturalistic observation, field experiments
- related issues: invasiveness, obtrusiveness
23
Q
Deductive vs Inductive
A
- abduction (retroduction): a form of logical inference which starts with an observation then seeks to find the simplest explanation. Educated guesses. Common in medicine, clinical diagnoses etc.
- deduction (subsumption): reasoning from premises to reach a logically certain conclusion. Experimentations. Common in hypothetic deductive sciences
- Induction (generalization): premises are views as supplying some evidence for the truth of the larger hypothesis/conclusion. Observations. Common in observational sciences
24
Q
Deductive vs inductive continued
A
- inductive: observation driven. Theory building. Come to generalization
- deductive: theory driven, theory testing. Come to specific preposition
25
Q
Observations and generalizations
A
- induction: theories from facts
- appeal to prior knowledge
- generalizations from observable facts
- inductivists favour experience over logic
- modern approach to inductivism: bayesian (use of conditional probabilities. Importance of priors, history, updatable knowledge)
26
Q
Epistemological distinction
A
- idiographic vs nomothetic sciences
- a distinction of necessity or preference
27
Q
Nomothetic
A
- large n research
- subjects are grouped
- data = group averages
- variability with groups is important
- statistical significance assessed by inferential statistics
28
Q
Idiographic/morphogenic
A
- each subject is a separate experiment
- small n research
- within-subject designs
- reliability assessed by replication
29
Q
Outliers(a problem with nomothetic sciences)
A
- dilution or elimination of exceptional cases
- outliers can be informative in relation to the norm
- abnormal behaviour can inform us on normal behaviour and make us aware of isolated, idiosyncratic populations
