Theories Flashcards
Giles’ Accommodation Theory
Where we adjust speech patterns depending on whom we are speaking to
Convergence
Where our speech movers CLOSER to that of another person
Divergence
Where our speech moves FURTHER apart from another person
Downward Convergence
Involves adjustments in the direction of the speech norms from HIGHER TO LOWER CLASS
Upward Convergence
Changes speech norms from LOWER TO HIGHER CLASS
Mutual convergence
Where both parties adjust speech patterns to each other’s
Fairclough’s Theory
Many social situations are shaped by power dynamics
(Eg. Teacher + student interactions)
Synthetic Personalisation
*inclusive language ‘we’ and ‘you’
“A tendency to give the impression of treating each of the people handled in masses as an individual”
Informalisation
Over time language has become more informal and personal
*this could be a marketing strategy
Power
In most conversations there is a power struggle/ imbalance
Trudgill and Lakoff’s Prestige Theory
Women tend to use overt prestige
Men tend to use covert prestige
OUTDATED THEORY
—> Informality is about CONTEXT not gender
Barthes’ codes
Hermeneutic/ Enigma code
Proairetic/ Action code
Semantic code
Symbolic code
Cultural code
Hermeneutic Code
The code that creates mystery
Proairetic Code
The code that creates action + suspense
Semantic Code
The code that carries connotations
(eg. If you use ‘white’ imagery to connote innocence)
Symbolic Code
The code associated with binary oppositions and symbolism
Cultural Code
This refers to anything in the story that refers to an external body of knowledge
(Such as: scientific, historical, cultural knowledge)
Paul Grice’s Cooperative Principles
4 maxims for communication to flow smoothly
Quantity
Quality
Relevance/ relation
Manner
Quantity
Speaking the right amount
Saying too little or too much would break this maxim
Quality
How truthful your utterances are
Lying, sarcasm, metaphors, idioms would break this maxim
Relevance/ relation
Speaking relevantly when conversing
Changing the topic agenda would break this maxim
Manner
Being clear in what you say
Mumbling, speaking too quietly, using language they don’t understand would break this maxim
Breaking a maxim
Flout
Violate
Flout
Deliberate breaking of a maxim where those concerned are aware
Violate
Where one person is not aware of breaking a maxim, this could be the speaker or anyone involved in the discourse
Goffman’s facework
Face- presenting a particular image of ourselves to others when communicating
We have the potential to save or break face
For a conversation to be cooperative, we avoid breaking face- achieved through politeness strategies
Face Threatening Act (FTA)
Created when we break face
Face saving act (FSA)
Created when we save face
Brown and Levinson’s development
Positive politeness
Negative politeness
Off the record politeness
Bald on record politeness
Opting out
Positive Politeness
Using language to show solidarity with addressee
Achieves positive facework
Eg. Complimenting others
Broken by: threats, insults, belittling the listener
Positive Politeness
Using language to show solidarity with addressee
Achieves positive facework
Eg. Complimenting others
Negative Politeness
Using language to show respect to addressee
—> hedging and apologising
Negative politeness achieves negative framework
Eg. Requests, giving advice, warning, suggestions
Broken by: not said in a polite way/ taken the wrong way
Negative FTA
Off the Record Politeness
Indirect speech acts where an implicature arises
Eg. “Wow, it’s really cold in here”
Bald on record politeness
Does nothing to minimise the hearer’s ‘face’
Direct way of communication g
FTA Usually happen if the tenor is distant
Eg. Speaker A is cold and says to speaker B: “close the window, I’m cold”
Opting out
Saying nothing
Eg. If you want the borrow your friend’s homework but don’t want to threaten their face, you may choose not to ask at all and opt out of the request entirely
Eckert and McConnell- Ginet’s Communitiy of Practice
Social identities often lead to community of practices
Eg. A class has a shared goal of learning and getting an A-Level qualification
—> Mandela created a community of practice with SA citizens via their shared experience of apartheid
Aristotle’ Rhetoric Theory
Placed importance on the ‘ART OF PERSUASION’
Language of rhetoric- way of convincing others + having good communication with others
Achieved via:
*ethos
*pathos
*logos
*kairos
Ethos
Speaker/ writers CREDIBILITY + TRUST
More like to be peruaded/ convinced if we trust the individual presenting an argument
Eg. Adverts endorsed by celebrities/ professionals
Pathos
Speaker/ writer’s appeal to EMOTIONS of the audience
Eg. Inspiring stories
Logos
Speaker/ writer’s appeal to LOGICAL THINKING of the audience
Proof/ evidence to form an argument
Eg. ‘90% of people say…’
Kairos
Refers to the ‘TIMELINESS’ of an argument
Eg. ‘Right here, right now’
More persuasive
