Theoretical Explanations of Media Flashcards
Milliband (marxism)
In his book ‘The State in a Capitalist Society’ argued that the ruling class use the media to control society by creating a false picture of reality that presents capitalism in a positive way. He suggests inequalities are presented as inevitable, justifiable and effective for society and therefore the proletariat accept the values of the ruling class, despite not being in their best interests. Milliband was concerned about about the impact of the media and stated that it was ‘the new opium of the people.’ Miliband believed that the media has replaced religion and stated that the institutions act like a drug to numb the senses and produce an illusion of happiness that is not real. This therefore means that the media takes the Proletariat’s attention away from exploitation and oppression of the capitalist system and allows the ruling class to control and dominate them
Media example: Tik Tok
Bagdikian (marxism)
In 1983 50 corporations controlled the vast majority of all news media in the USA, but by 2004 media ownership was concentrated in 7 corporations
Media example: Rupert Murdoch
Curran (marxism)
Found evidence of owners directly manipulating media content. In the middle of the 20th Century, “press barons” were quite open about their propagandist role, and also that there have always been a lot more Conservative-supporting newspapers than those critical of that party, which reflects them serving the interests of their wealthy owners. In the later 20th Century and today owners are, if anything, even more interventionist, with Rupert Murdoch being the obvious example. Furthermore, politicians clearly believe media moguls to have a great deal of control over media content because they try to get on the right side of them! Tony Blair famously flew to Australia to meet with Rupert Murdoch and was rewarded with the support of The Sun. Several years later, David Cameron repeated this with the same outcome. The content of commercial terrestrial television is mainly controlled by one company, ITV plc, whilst access to satellite, cable and digital television in Britain is generally controlled by two companies – News Corp, (owned by Rupert Murdoch) which owns BSkyB, and Virgin Media (owned by Richard Branson)
Media example: Tony Blair going to see Rupert Murdoch
Doyle (marxism)
Suggests that examination of ownership and control patterns is important for two reasons: the first being that all points of view need to be heard if society is to be truly democratic and the second is that abuses of power and influence by elites need to be monitored by a free media
Media example: Rupert Murdoch
The Sutton Trust (neo-marxism)
Found that journalists and broadcasters tend to be white, middle class and male and more than 50% attended private schools. Neo-Marxists are incredibly critical of this over-representation (reminder that only 7% of the UK population attend private schools). Therefore it is clear that when reflecting on the role of the media within the contemporary UK, media professionals aim to produce content that is popular in the media marketplace, but due to their backgrounds and personal values, they unconsciously produce content that promotes ruling-class norms, values and ideologies. Neo-Marxists would be highly critical of the content that we as the audience is exposed to
Media example: Tik Tok
Gilroy (neo-marxism)
Argues that black crime, particularly in the 1970s, was a form of political resistance against the repressive, racist state (capitalist state). He denies that there was greater criminality amongst black people that white people and stated that the media created a folk devil surrounding black people which generated deviancy amplification (as based on the work of Cohen).
Media example: Notting Hill Carnival
Hall (neo-marxism)
Discusses three key stereotypes of black people within the media. They are portrayed as natives, as entertainers and as slaves. These groups are subject to ridicule, so as to neutralise their ideas and the notion that they are a threat. This reflects an unconscious racism – Black and Asian people are portrayed as being the ‘source’ of social problems and are labelled as a ‘problem’ in media coverage. For example being labelled as ‘troublemakers’ in news coverage of riots, where the media defends the law and government. These stereotypes are predominantly evident in traditional Hollywood films but also surprisingly in contemporary media texts. Although an attempt to promote diversity has been developed within the media, it is still constructed by those in ‘control’ of the media meaning it does not challenge their dominant views. It is important to note that… if certain social groups who live in deprived situations are stereotyped negatively, it prevents people empathising with their situation, meaning nothing will be done to support them. It also means that they will not empathise with each other which prevents them from uniting together - This also prevents a revolution
Media example: Top Boy
The Glasgow Media Group (neo-marxism)
Carried out research into media presentations of different social groups, including the working class. The research covered working class ‘issues’ such as workers strikes and industrial action alongside, what Philo et al identified as, representations of immigrants and asylum seekers. These social groups were again presented in a stereotyped and negative way. Found recurring themes in media representations including the following:
Threatening numbers - Some media accounts appear to exaggerate the actual numbers of people immigrating to the UK. A burden on welfare and the job market - This is a frequent type of media representation, which ignores the possible economic benefits of immigration for the UK in favour of exaggerating their perceived burden. It is presented that there is a ‘need’ for immigration ‘control’ - Shown in political debates through the media - It is presented that relaxing controls would not benefit the UK economy
Media example: ‘Asylum Seekers Cost You £786M’ - Daily Express front cover
Whale (pluralism)
What we see in the press / news is determined by its readers / audiences. If social groups were represented unfairly, audiences would not continue to use media products being sold.
Audiences can recognise stereotypes and can see when they are being manipulated suggesting that this is not an issue created by the media
Media example: Hillsborough Disaster
Fourth Estate of Democracy (pluralism)
The media has been labelled as the following the government, the courts and the church. The media holds this label as it is felt that access to information is seen an an essential part of democracy that allows people to make informed choices. The different types of media include news channels, tabloid press vs broadsheet, social media, political broadcast and party political broadcast
Media example: Instagram
Williams (pluralism)
Journalists are vital in a democratic society as they provide the general public with the information required to participate in political and cultural life. He would state that this means that the media does have a significant and important role in presented groups fairly. A free press is vital for democracy to work effectively as censorships can lead to a bias, uncritical view of politicians and policies. Newspapers that traditionally supported the Conservative party do now criticise Conservative policies when necessary
Media example: Matt Hancock affair
Mulvey (feminism)
Introduced the concept of the ‘male gaze’ to characterise cinema as an instrument of male spectatorship. She carried out a semiology (A research method which involves the study of communication - both linguistic & non linguistic. It is the analysis of language & signs) to research the representation of women within films. Examples include - Rear Window the film - Mulvey argues that the female main character, Lisa Fremont, is constantly asked to be looked at through Hitchcocks close-ups and choice of costumes - She is often shown in flattering soft light. Also Mulvey discusses the voyeuristic gaze of ‘Jefferies’ who watches her.
Vertigo the film - Examples include - Illustrates how female characters are watched by males, who they then feel pressure to look ‘good’ for.
Transformers the film - Female characters are often sexualised, which has no direct relation to the storyline of the films. Mulvey claims that the female characters in Transformers are placed ultimately to please heterosexual male viewers E.g. Megan Fox is overly sexualised in one iconic scene that supports Mulvey’s view that she is placed purely to serve the gratification of men
Media example: Transformers and Disney Princesses
Wolf (feminism)
Women are socialised to conform to, and buy into, what she coins the “beauty myth” – Referring to the notion that women feel pressure to conform to the male image of what a woman should look like in terms of sex appeal, shape, size and weight. The contemporary media takes these images and presents them as the “ideal”. Wolf and other Radical Feminists see this “ideal” representation of femininity as a ‘backlash’ against the women’s movement and potential developments that have been made. These ideologies ensure that women develop a ‘false consciousness’ that distracts them from seeking to improve their position within society
Media example: Cosmopolitan Katy Perry Magazine
Whelehan (feminism)
Carried out a study into men’s magazines such as FHM, Maxim and Loaded and claimed that these magazines override the message of Feminism. These magazines promoted a ‘laddish culture’ where women are objectified and changes in gender roles can be dismissed as an ‘ironic joke’
Media example: Loaded, FHM and Maxim magazine
McRobbie (feminism)
Conducted a range of research into women’s and girl’s magazines over the course of four decades and is one of a very few academics to study these magazines over a long period of time. Through this comprehensive analysis, generally magazines do have an impact on the identity of their readers. A ‘discourse of Western enlightened values’ is present throughout magazines, and a ‘Western’ version of femininity is promoted as the ‘ideal’ – Through this, the magazines have a distinct focus on fashion, lifestyle, love and beauty which promotes hegemonic femininity. McRobbie has been most critical of celebrity gossip magazines Heat and Closer
Media example: Heat and Closer magazines - I’m ashamed of my body, I admit it
McLuhan (postmodernism)
Discusses the notion of the ‘global village’ – He coined the term “global village” to suggest that information would eventually be passed on electronically due to it “moving at the speed of light”. Predicted that the Postmodern world would create a new pattern of communication and social interactions. Postmodernists state that globalisation has had a direct impact on media representations as it provides access to a broader range of lifestyles and identities that offers people choice - For example there has been the emergence of hybrid ethnic identities which have emerged due to the presentations of a range of cultural practices and lifestyles. Progressions in digital communication and the creation of a global village means that “everybody lives in the utmost proximity created by our electric involvement in one another’s lives”. Electricity, especially through the media of the Internet and TV, brings information instantaneously from the four corners of the planet. Communities across the globe become entwined in one another’s affairs and the internet reduces the entire globe to the dimensions of a village – a ‘global village’
Media example: Instagram
Strinati (postmodernism)
Capitalist countries, such as the UK, are now media saturated as people engage with a range of different media products and forums. Media plays a significant role whilst people are constructing their identities, due to people being connected with devices and services on a daily basis. The mass media used to reflect society directly, but claims that in a Postmodern world this is not as simple. Due to the diversity offered by the media there are no traditional representations of social groups, this means that there has been an ‘erosion of identity’, whereby people no longer use the media as a reference on which to develop aspects of their identity/self. Identity is no longer constrained. Acknowledge that boundaries have blurred between groups of people and argue that there are no longer clear, set and restrictive roles, norms and values surrounding social class, gender, ethnicity and age
Media example: Tik Tok
Baudrillard (postmodernism)
Media saturation has altered reality and acknowledges that this can have negative impacts on society. Media saturation has made it incredibly difficult for people to distinguish what is reality and what is fiction. People are so ‘engulfed’ (consumed) by communication and devices that this has lead to a state of ‘hyper-reality’ meaning that our physical reality has become blended with our virtual realities and our human intelligence is merging with artificial intelligence – Some people are more involved with the ‘hyperreal’ world and not the physical real world. There is so much information in the world that the media has to simplify it for audiences. Therefore the power is in the hands of media producers who take the role of deciding what is real – This leads to audiences accepting this diluted view of information. A more contemporary example of this could be ‘fake news’. This leads to us living in a Postmodern world with lots of additional information at our fingertips but potentially less meaning / understanding of the world. Finally, Baudrillard uses the term ‘simulacra’ when discussing virtual reality, that can lead to a more satisfying version of the physical world
Media example: Coronavirus masks
