Media Effects Flashcards
Hpodermic syringe model/magic bullet theory (Packard) (direct effects)
The audience passively accepts the messages ‘injected’ into them by the media. Direct effects do not acknowledge differences between members of the audiences, therefore they are seen as homogenous (all the same). Packard - Talks about the ‘magic bullet theory’ (similar to the Hypodermic Syringe Model) meaning information is like a bullet that penetrates the audience. Examined the impact of advertising - Some sociologists argue that some media organisations aim to have this effect on their audiences, e.g. newspapers aim to sway voting habits of its audiences. The model suggests that audiences do not engage with media material they just simply accept it
Media example: Tik Tok
Newson (direct effects)
Children’s exposure to media violence has a desensitising effect - as a result, they are more likely to commit acts of violence in reality if they have been exposed to violence in the media. Continued exposure to violence in films over several years ‘desensitised’ children and teenagers to violence and that they came to see violence as a norm, and as a way of solving problems. E.g. James Bulger killers mimicking violence in Child’s Play 3. Newson’s research led to increased censorship in the film industry e.g. age certificates, 9pm watershed
Media example: Murder of James Bulger
Bandura (direct effects)
Explored media effects on violence - Found that children can act more aggressively when given the opportunity to do so. Showed 3 groups of children real, film and cartoon examples of a bobo doll being beaten with a mallet. A further (control) group were shown no violence. The children were then taken to a room with lots of toys, but then ‘frustrated’ by being told the toys were not for them. They were then taken to a room with a mallet and a bobo doll - the children who had seen the violent examples imitated the violence, while the children who had seen no violence did not beat the doll
Media example: Grand theft auto crime spree
Anderson et al (direct effects)
Studied effect of violent song lyrics on attitudes and emotions of 500 college students who were asked to listen to songs with violent, non-violent and ‘humorous’ lyrics by Beastie Boys, Cypress Hill and Run DMC. Found a clear pattern of increased aggressive thoughts and feelings of hostility following on from listening to violent song lyrics. After listening to the songs, the students performed various word-association tasks to test whether they linked more non-aggressive words with aggressive lyrics. Measured their feelings of hostility. Found that even humorous violent songs did increase aggression levels, in comparison non-violent songs
Media example: “Finger Lickin’ Good” by the Beastie Boys
Fesbach and Sanger (direct effects)
Found that screen violence can actually provide a safe outlet for people’s aggressive tendencies. This is known as catharsis. Watching an exciting film releases aggressive energy into safe outlets as the viewers immerse themselves in the action
Media example: Marvel movies
Young (direct effects)
There are two responses to viewing violence in the media: seeing the effects of violence and especially the pain and suffering that it causes to the victim and their families, may make us more aware of its consequences and so less inclined to commit violent acts in this sense it has a sensitising effect, and if violence is viewed in a more permissible way, the content and behaviour may become more desensitising
Media example: 24 hours in police custody
Katz and Lazarsfeld (indirect effects)
Personal relationships and conversations with significant others, such as family members, friends, teachers and work colleagues, result in people modifying or rejecting media messages - Social networks usually dominated by what they call ‘opinion leaders’. These opinion leaders are generally made up of people who expose themselves to more and different types of media - As a result of this opinion leaders become seen as ‘experts’ in specific matters and their interpretations are then passed on to other members of their social circle. Media audiences are not directly influenced by the media but rather they choose to adopt a particular opinion, attitude and way of behaving after negotiation and discussion with an opinion leader. Therefore this suggests that the audience is not passive when interpreting media messages, but active. Media messages go through two steps or stages: the opinion leader is exposed to the media content and those who respect the opinion leader internalise their interpretation of that content and transmit these messages
Media example: Opinion leaders are firends when talking about Love Island
Marxist cultural effects model (Gramsci) (indirect effects)
Sees the media as a very powerful ideological influence that is mainly concerned with transmitting capitalist values and norms. Media content contains strong ideological messages that reflect the values of those who own, control and produce the media. The long-term effect of such media content is that the values of the rich and powerful come to be unconsciously shared by most people – people come to believe in values such as: ‘Happiness is about possessions and money’, ‘Being a celebrity is really important’ etc. The idea that the values of the rich and powerful become unconsciously shared is what Gramsci calls ‘hegemony’ – This refers to the notion that ruling class, capitalist ideologies are presented as common sense in the media. This is another reason that The Cultural Effects Model can be described as a ‘drip drip model’. Marxists believe that television content, in particular, has been deliberately ‘dumbed down’ and this has resulted in a decline in serious programmes such as news, documentaries and drama that might make audiences think critically about the state of the world. Consequently, there is little serious debate about the organisation of capitalism and the social inequalities and problems that it generates. Again this has a drip, drip effect where over time we come to accept capitalism and are led into false consciousness. This is also popular with neo Marxists who see this as a way of maintaining hegemony
Media example: Made in Chelsea
Drip Drip Model (indirect effects)
Rather than having a more immediate effect (like the direct effect theories), it suggests that the more an ideology is “dripped” into society by the media, the more people believe it and accept it as true. The mass media gradually influences the audience over a period of time. It is a slow and subtle process which gradually shapes people’s common sense ideas, assumptions and their everyday view of the world. Over time our norms are changed by viewing certain media content. For example, if we keep viewing violence our view of violence may be that it is more and more acceptable as we become desensitised. Similarly, prolonged exposure to poverty or famine might create ‘compassion fatigue’ where we begin to empathise with situations less sincerely
Media example: Covid death toll statistics
Uses and Gratifications Model (active audiences)
The audience is an active agent when using the media as they are using it for their own purposes and to satisfy their needs. Rather than thinking about ‘what the media does to people’, as is discussed by the direct and indirect models, the uses and gratifications model discusses ‘what people do with the media’. Meaning they do not directly discuss media effects. Individual characteristics may influence how and why people access the media to gratify their needs – These could be based on social class, gender, ethnicity and age
Media example: Instagram
Zillman (active audiences)
A person’s mood may influence their media choice; for example boredom might encourage the choice of exciting content, whereas stress might encourage the choice of relaxing content. The same TV programme may satisfy the needs of individuals differently. These different needs are associated with individual personalities, stages of maturation, backgrounds and social roles
Media example: Marvel
McQuail (active audiences)
Offers the following categories of common reasons for media use, including information (media provides information on events, advice, practical matters - This satisfies curiosity and general interests), personal identity (media can be used to reinforce personal values and behaviour. They can also imitate role models), integration and social integration (we can use the media to gain insight into the circumstances of others ) and entertainment (we can use the media to escape / be diverted from problems - It can be used for entertainment, filing time, emotional release and sexual arousal)
Media example: BBC News, Instagram, Facebook, Netflix
Hall (active audiences)
Explored how people make sense of media texts and claimed audiences were active not passive. Discussed the importance of examining coding and decoding of media texts: Coding - Media messages are produced, or coded, by media professionals in ways that support the power structures of society. Decoding - Audiences are able to understand, and decode, these messages in a ways that reflects their social background and ideas. When discussing decoding in more detail Hall suggests there are three different ways of reading media messages: dominant/hegemonic reading - Audience takes the message that was intended by the media professionals. Negotiated reading - Audience mixes the original (dominant) message with additional ideas meaning that the intended message is slightly altered. Oppositional reading - Audience constructs a meaning that is completely different to its intended meaning.
In summary it is clear that Hall differentiates that: An active audience engages, interprets and responds to a media text in different ways and is capable of challenging the ideas encoded in it. A passive audience is more likely to accept the messages encoded in a media text without challenge and are therefore more likely to be directly affected by the messages
Media example: Britain’s got talent ‘Never enough’
Klapper - Selective Filter Model (active audiences)
Developed this model and argued that audiences are not passive receptors of media propaganda but that the media reinforces already held beliefs and attitudes. For a media message to have an effect, it must pass through 3 filters: Selective exposure - Audience must choose to view, read or listen to the content of specific media. Media messages can have no effect if no one sees or hears them. However, what the audience choose to access depends upon their interests, education, work commitments. Selective perception - Audience may not accept the message; some people may take notice of some media content, but decide to reject or ignore others. Selective retention - Messages have to ‘stick’ in the mind of those who have accessed the media content. However, research indicates that most people have a tendency to remember only the things they broadly agree with and that fit in with their lifestyles and beliefs
Media example: News on vaping
