Themes and Perspectives

Question 1

what is development?

Answer 1

the process by which an organism grows and changes through its lifespan

these processes can either be of growth or lasting change

Question 2

what is development interested in?

Answer 2

sequential influence- the process of systematic, organised, and successive changes

Question 3

what questions does developmental psychology ask?

Answer 3

1. what develops?
2. what are the causes of development?

Question 4

what does developmental psychology focus on?

Answer 4

the importance of temporal order and individual differences

Question 5

what are universals?

Answer 5

consider what species have in common during a particular point of development

Question 6

what do universals assume?

Answer 6

• commonality
• children will achieve key milestones within sequential qualitative stages
• they do not consider variation important

Question 7

what do universals rely on?

Answer 7

experimental methods, by comparing groups of children

Question 8

what are individual differences?

Answer 8

fascinated with variation between children

Question 9

what do individual differences focus on?

Answer 9

qualitative differences between people

Question 10

what do individual differences rely on?

Answer 10

naturalistic designs, through longitudinal studies and behaviour genetic research

they aim to study naturally occuring differences

Question 11

continuous characteristic

Answer 11

when a group continuously performs at the same mean level across a period

Question 12

discontinuous characteristic

Answer 12

when the mean level changes over time

Question 13

stability

Answer 13

consistency within the rank order of individuals, and if this remains relative to the group performance

Question 14

instability

Answer 14

when the relative order in a group is not maintained

Question 15

homotypic stability

Answer 15

using the same test to measure the same construct at multiple time points

Question 16

heterotypic stability

Answer 16

when a different measure is used to test the same construct

Question 17

what can heterotypic stability designs only able to look at?

Answer 17

rank order, rather than mean order and change

this is due to using a different test to measure the same construct

Question 18

what do domain specific theories focus on?

Answer 18

particular behaviours, traits, and skills

Question 19

what do domain specific theories claim?

Answer 19

they do not make broad claims, and instead emphasise the development of particular mechanisms with narrow effects

Question 20

what do domain general theories focus on?

Answer 20

a broader range of behaviours

Question 21

what do domain general theories claim?

Answer 21

they characterise broader patterns in development, and emphasise influences that might affect many outcomes

Question 22

why is age never a causal variable?

Answer 22

the entire concept of age can vary across time and culture

Question 23

prenatal

Answer 23

conception to birth

Question 24

infancy

Answer 24

0-2 years

Question 25

early childhood

Answer 25

3-5 years

Question 26

middle childhood

Answer 26

6-11 years

Question 27

adolescence

Answer 27

11-25 years

Question 28

empiricism

Answer 28

• believes that the basis of all knowledge is experience
• believes that development occurs as a process of learning through reinforcement
• antecedent stimuli can either reinforce or discard behaviour

Question 29

example of an empiricist theory

Answer 29

skinner’s behaviourism, due to its emphasis on nurture

Question 30

what does empiricism believe?

Answer 30

‘children are blank slates, and everything is learned through reinforcement and operant learning’

Question 31

nativism

Answer 31

• believes that concepts are innate and not derived from experience

Question 32

what did fodor believe about nativism?

Answer 32

the human mind is modular- compromised of innate specialised functions for different concepts

these modules are fundamentally innate and shaped by evolution

Question 33

nurture vs nature

Answer 33

focus on learning and environment is central

focus on natural maturation and environment is peripheral

Question 34

pragmatism

Answer 34

• stresses action rather than reflection
• believes cognitive development is a process of action, adaptation, and experience

Question 35

piaget’s constructivism

Answer 35

piaget viewed cognitive development as a progression through distinct, qualitative stages

Question 36

what does constructivism claim about cognitive development?

Answer 36

cognitive development occurs as a process of internalising action and social interaction

new connections are filtered through ‘schemata’ assimilation and accomodation

Question 37

what do pragmatism and constructivism encourage?

Answer 37

moving beyond the nature-nurture dichotomy and support the systems theory

believe that children must act within the wolrd in order to learn

Question 38

developmental systems theory

Answer 38

development occurs within different domains

‘nature and nurture are inextricably tied together and never exist independent of the other’

it is an interactionist approach as genes can influence the environment

Question 39

what evidence has been found to support the interactionist systems theory?

Answer 39

research using adoptive families and biological parents, as antisocial behaviour genetically inherited from parents can evoke harsh parenting in adoptive parents

Question 40

what evidence towards environment influencing genetic expression was found by a meta-analysis?

Answer 40

children in low socioeconomic backgrounds are unable to live up to the ‘innate potential’ of their intelligence

Question 41

bronfenbrenner’s environmental ‘developmental systems theory’

Answer 41

children are surrounded by different systems of influence, such as identity, society, culture, and time