The State And Globalisation Flashcards
Definition of the state according to Max Weber?
A human community that successfully claims the monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory
Definition of a state according to the Montevideo Convention?
A state is a political entity with the following qualities:
1. A permanent population
2. Clearly defined borders and territory
3. A functioning sovereign government
4. Majority recognition from other states
What is the current model of international politics based on?
Peace of Westphalia (1648)
What does the Westphalian state system assert about nation states?
Each nation state has the right to be free from other states’ interference in its internal affairs
What is controversial about the Westphalian state system?
It implies that states have the absolute authority to carry out any policies it wants to within its own borders, even including genocide, suppression of civil liberties etc… (liberals would disagree with this precedent by favouring international agreements like the genocide convention)
Why is the model of the nation state problematic?
- Nations without a state (e.g. Palestinians are effectively under Israeli sovereignty, national groups such as the Kurds and the Basques have no defined state)
- States not recognising other self defined nation states (e.g. China not recognising Taiwan despite Taiwan asserting its own sovereignty - however, it is possible that over time a self defined nation state will gradually come to be recognised, e.g Communist china was not initially recognised as a state by the west)
- Nation states with competing claims to the same territory (e.g. recent disputes about the South China Sea)
Examples of developments in global politics which show that the strict definition of sovereignty is being challenged
Economic interdependence (e.g. economic issues in one stage have a far higher chance of spreading - Asian Financial Crisis, Global Financial Crisis)
Climate change - the climate policies of one state affect other states (e.g. US, UK, China, India etc are big polluters, yet it is developing countries with limited emissions who are impacted by droughts and floods)
How is globalisation defined by Held?
The widening, intensifying, speeding up and growing impact of worldwide interconnectedness
What are the ‘engines’ of modern globalisation?
Communication
Transport
Migration
IGOs
Explain communication as an ‘engine’ of globalisation
Technology has made virtually instantaneous communication available to billions of people (even in developing countries like India, where apps like Whatsapp allow for the rapid dissemination of information)
In 1990, only 2.6 million people had internet access - this number has risen to over 5 billion today
Greater availability of news, aiding in the democratisation of states (e.g. global pressure was put on dictators during the Arab Spring protests due to viral clips of army brutality on Twitter)
Explain transport as an ‘engine’ of globalisation
Speed of transport hugely increased in recent times, allowing for goods to be shipped around the world far more quickly
e.g in 1956, the largest cargo ships could carry approx 80 containers - the largest ‘Post-Panamax’ ships today can carry approx 18,000
Goods can be shipped across the world in a matter of days
e.g. most flowers in UK supermarkets were grown in East African countries like Kenya and Tanzania
Explain migration as an ‘engine’ of globalisation
Economic booms encourage workers to move to countries with higher economic development or big infrastructure programmes
e.g. at least 30% of the Gulf population are Indian migrants, who work in places like Qatar and the UAE on huge oil projects
e.g. the NHS has tens of thousands of staff with Indian, Filipino, Irish, Polish and Portuguese nationality
This movement of ideas drives innovation - 49% of the UK’s largest companies were founded by immigrants
Define cultural globalisation
The process whereby information, commodities and images produced in one part of the world enter into a global flow, ‘flattening out’ cultural differences between nation-states
Which article of the UN Charter recognises state sovereignty?
Article 2 of Chapter 1 of the UN Charter
Examples to show the attraction of the nation state model?
Scotland (1.1% of population speaks Gaelic, 55.3% no in indyref)
Catalonia (73% speak Catalan, 81% yes in self-determination ref)
Shows strong correlation between cultural identity and desire to be a nation state
Threats to the existence of nation states?
Globalisation, which fundamentally undermines both aspects of what constitutes a nation state (exercising sovereignty over a clearly defined region and a shared cultural identity). e.g. the weakening of state borders has led to national identity becoming more fluid
Government power - the rise of new nation states threatens government power as more cultural groups push for their own state (e.g. in Catalonia)
Cultural globalisation: how has the spread of consumerism impacted world politics?
Advance of consumer capitalism, culminating in a process coined ‘Coca-Colonisation’ (referring to the emergence of global good and brands that have come to dominate economic markets, creating an image of bland uniformity).
Critics of this portray consumerism as a tool used by TNCs to expand their influence and profitability (e.g. journalist Naomi Klein called this the ‘tyranny of brand culture’)
Also an assault on local, regional and national distinctiveness (‘flattening out’)
Cultural globalisation: how has the advance of individualism impacted world politics?
Cultural globalisation is dominated by Western concepts of individualism (the belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any social group or collective body)
However, this is at odds with the values of other societies, in which they have held on to traditional notions of the collective (e.g. anti-individualist societies exist in Taiwan, South Korea and Singapore)
Cultural globalisation: how has ‘cultural imperialism’ impacted world politics?
Cultural globalisation tends to have a markedly Western, or more specifically American, character. There is a disproportionate extent to which the goods and images that dominate modern commerce and global media derive from the USA.
Explain the cultural backlash against cultural globalisation
Radical backlash against imposed values and practices is emerging. This is a response to what Benjamin Barber coined the ‘McWorld’ (a world culture shaped by symbiotic links) which has created cultural homogenisation. In certain parts of the Muslim world, there has been a strong reaction against the ‘morally bankrupt’ West, contributing to the rise of militant Islamism/ Pres Museveni of Uganda said ‘Respect African societies and their values. If you don’t agree, just keep quiet’
Rise of nationalism - e.g. race for the Covid vaccine, Brexit, Trump’s ‘America first’, Geert Wilders said Islam has no place in Dutch culture
What is a global monoculture?
A product of cultural globalisation in which diverse cultures have been flattened out to create a more uniform pattern of global culture
What is coca-colonisation?
Coined by Brendan Barber, ‘coca-colonisation’ refers to the materialism encouraged by cultural globalisation
What is interconnectedness?
The way in which states become more linked through their shared membership of intergovernmental and regional organisations.
What is economic globalisation?
The process by which states across the world become more closely connected and interdependent according to the principles of free trade, which leads to the greater flow transnational flow of goods, services and capital.
Examine the factors driving the widening and deepening of interconnectedness and interdependence: overview
The significance of financial globalisation
The globalisation of markets
The influence of non-state actors
What are non-state actors?
Entities, such as NGOs, IGOs, transnational corporations and even terrorist or criminal networks, that wield significant influence over global affairs
Examine the factors driving the widening and deepening of interconnectedness and interdependence: the significance of financial globalisation
Economic liberalism (Washington consensus) has led to the dominance of free market principles in global trade. Bretton Woods institutions (the IMF, the WTO and the World Bank) are based on these principles and are significant in international markets.
These lead to interconnectedness because 1) states need to establish the sort of conditions that attract global investors (e.g. light regulation and low corporation tax) and 2) any state that acts in defiance of these free trade principles risk loss off investment. States are interconnected in this way because they have to act in accordance with global financial norms.
e.g Ireland has a corporation tax rate of only 12.5% to drive investment
Examine the factors driving the widening and deepening of interconnectedness and interdependence: the globalisation of markets
The globalisation of financial markets, facilitated by instantaneous communication provided by the internet, increase interconnectedness because global events can affect a state’s economic wellbeing
e.g. in 1997, global capital flight from Thailand threatened the prosperity of southeast Asia as a whole as it discouraged investment into the region
e.g. in 2007-8, the sub-prime mortgage crisis in the USA provoked a global banking crisis (the value of global trade decreased by 9%)
Examine the factors driving the widening and deepening of interconnectedness and interdependence: the influence of non-state actors
Non state actors are entities, such as NGOs, IGOs, transnational corporations and even terrorist or criminal networks, that wield significant influence over global affairs.
As global issues emerge, like climate change and international terrorism, a ‘collective security dilemma’ is created which states cannot solve alone - they increasingly work together in IGOs to resolve problems
e.g. in 2009, the G20 responded to the global financial crisis collectively through a global strategy of reflation (a return of prices of goods to previous rates of inflation) and continued commitment to free trade
e.g. IPCC provides a global forum in which recommendations for actions are agreed
Impacts of globalisation on state sovereignty?
Economic globalisation - crises now affect everyone (e.g. Thailand, sub-prime mortgage crisis), global influence of TNCs, foreign investment now a policy priority for many (e.g. Ireland)
Intergovernmentalism - bound by IGOs (e.g. IAEA ensures signatories abide by terms of NPT) and supranational bodies like EU (e.g. Schengen agreement, ECJ)
Internet - anti-government websites contributed to the Arab Spring conflict, radicalisation and cyber terrorism caused by internet (e.g. ISIS propaganda vids)
Impact of Bretton Woods institutions?
World Bank, IMF, WTO
Impact state sovereignty by advancing global free markets and free trade
SAPs - implemented by IMF and World Bank to advance these principles e.g. would only bail out Greece during financial crisis if they made changes like increasing age at which people could claim a pension
WTO currently has 164 members - advances globalisation by encouraging member states to reduce import tariffs
Impact of UN?
Based on the liberal principle that the international community needs to work together to resolve ‘collective dilemmas’ (not sacrificing, but pooling sovereignty - Article 2 of Chapter 1)
Agencies include the WHO (eradication of smallpox and near eradication of polio globally, coordinated global response to Ebola and Zika virus crises), IAEA (monitors states’ fulfilment of the NPT), UNICEF (has coordinated child immunisation programmes in the developing world) and the WFP (provided food relief to 76.7 million people in 81 countries in 2015)
Also responsible for MDGs and SDGs and climate change conferences
Impact of regional organisations?
EU, ASEAN, USMCA, ASIS
Mini free-trade areas, providing the regions with greater influence in global trade (e.g. ASEAN collectively accounts for around 7.2% of global GDP)
States pool economic sovereignty to advance their own interests
Impact of the internet on economic globalisation?
Has led to the instantaneous trading of shares and movement of capital, creating a global marketplace for business and commerce
Spread of global brands (e.g. in 2016, Apple announced it had sold its billionth iPhone)
Advantages of economic globalisation
Greater quality of goods/services
Reduction in global poverty
Greater voice for developing states
Disadvantages of economic globalisation
Rising inequality within states
Contagion of instability
Ecological destruction
Advantages of economic globalisation: greater quality of goods/services
Rise in trade leads to greater availability and quality of goods
e.g. tropical fruits in British supermarkets
e.g. steel in China, raw materials like cobalt mined in the Congo)
Generally cheaper because of competition - states can produce what they can at the lowest opportunity cost then trade with each other, bringing down costs for food, electronics, manufactured goods, clothes etc…
This is also true for services as the movement of global labour helps to fill gaps in the Labour market (e.g. the NHS has tens of thousands of staff with Indian, Filipino, Irish, Polish and Portuguese nationality)
Advantages of economic globalisation: reduction in global poverty
Economic globalisation means TNCs often shift or outsource many aspects of their manufacturing to the developing world
This provides jobs, improves infrastructure and generates wealth (e.g. virtually all of Vietnamese workers employed by TNCs are in the top 20% of the country’s earners - however, they are underpaid and work long hours by Western standards)
Advances in knowledge and technology can be lowered in price and transmitted to the developing world in a globalised economy - e.g. mobile phones and the internet have led to a massive growth in online banking in sub-Saharan Africa,, reducing poverty in rural areas
Advantages of economic globalisation: greater voice for developing states
Economic development driven regionalism, giving smaller states a greater voice on the world stage (e.g. ASEAN collectively is responsible for 7.2% of global GDP, meaning developing member states like Cambodia and Vietnam can benefit)
ASIS represents the need for sustainable economic development, by advocating for its member states who are susceptible to damage from climate change
Disadvantages of economic globalisation: rising inequality within states
The wealth that is generated through global free trade is concentrated in the hands of the elite, drastically increasing the gap between rich and poor
In China, in 2016, it is estimated that the poorest 25% owns just 1% of the country’s wealth while the richest 1% own a third
Furthermore, in developed states, areas which formerly relied on manufacturing like the north of England or the ‘Rust Belt’ of the USA are likely to suffer due to outsourcing of jobs
Disadvantages of economic globalisation: contagion of instability
Integrating the global market may lead to more opportunities and wealth, but it also makes economic problems more contagious, spreading rapidly across the world
e.g. Thailand and the Asian Financial Crisis, sub-prime mortgages in the USA caused a global banking crisis
Disadvantages of economic globalisation: ecological destruction
Economic globalisation has exacerbated the consumerist, capitalist system. As capitalism is driven by profit, corporations will often have lax environmental regulations and/or will extract resources at an unsustainable rate
e.g. strip mining cobalt in the Congo pollutes the local water supply
e.g. 60% of Amazonian deforestation is for cattle ranches
This contributes to rise in greenhouse gases, which in turn raises global temperatures and damages the environment as a whole
Yes, economic globalisation has reduced global poverty arguments
Convergence between the Global North and Global South
Spread of consumer goods
Breaking out of the poverty cycle
Yes, economic globalisation has reduced global poverty arguments: convergence between global south and north
Global South/North coined in the Brandt Reports of 1980 and 1983, highlighting the economic and social divisions between the developed and developing world. Supporters of economic globalisation say that free-trade liberalism has challenged this divide by boosting the income of developing states
Gross world production has increased from $51 trillion in 2000, to be projected to be around $110 trillion in 2024
Number of people living below the global measure of poverty has decreased from 1.9 billion in 1980 to 701 million in 2019
Examples of huge reductions in extreme poverty caused by economic globalisation
in 1980, 84% of China’s population lived in extreme poverty. This number had decreased to 12% by 2012 (but increased slightly to 13% in 2020 due adjustments in the global measure of poverty)
In 1980, 60% of India’s population lived in extreme poverty. This number had decreased to around 20% by 2017
Examples of industries in Africa which have taken off due to economic globalisation
Botswana (diamonds)
Ethiopia (coffee)
Ghana (gold and cocoa)
Yes, economic globalisation has reduced global poverty arguments: consumer goods
Globalisation has driven down the cost of consumer goods, providing most people in the world with the opportunity to own material goods previously restricted to the wealthiest.
In the developing world 8 out of 10 people own a mobile phone
In 2016, the world’s cheapest smartphone, the Ringing Bells Freedom 251 was launched on the Indian market for £2.79
Yes, economic globalisation has reduced global poverty arguments: breaking out of the poverty cycle
Economic globalisation provides employing opportunities which allow people in the developing world to break out of the cycle of rural poverty
Provides a regular wage and opportunities for career development and accumulation of capital to give their children a better education (breaking poverty cycle)
Paul Collier stated, ‘globalisation provides virtually infinite possibilities of expansion… this creates jobs, especially for youth’
No, economic globalisation has not reduced global poverty arguments
Greater inequality
A race to the bottom
World systems (dependency) theory
No, economic globalisation has not reduced global poverty arguments: greater inequality
The wealth that is generated through global free trade is concentrated in the hands of the elite, drastically increasing the gap between rich and poor
In China, in 2016, it is estimated that the poorest 25% owns just 1% of the country’s wealth while the richest 1% own a third
Amy Chua (in ‘World on Fire’) argued that concentrating wealth in the hands of a few breeds resentment among the rest who then do not feel as though they are better off
How did Thatcher argue that greater inequality is not a problem?
Growing income inequality does not matter, so long as society overall is becoming richer
(possible response to this would be Amy Chua)
No, economic globalisation has not reduced global poverty arguments: race to the bottom
Global capitalism is based on the maximisation of profit, so it suits the interests of TNCs to seek out the lowest costs to operate their business (‘race to the bottom’ - states compete to attract business by keeping regulations as low as possible)
e.g of this being dangerous = Rana Plaza garment factory disaster, where 1,129 employees died due to structural failings
Human Rights Watch has accused Chinese mining firms in Africa of human rights abuses
Cambodian government ignoring labour rights to maximise profitability as it attempts to break into the global export market with its cheap textiles
Statistics to show current rates of income inequality?
the Gini coefficient measures the extent of inequality within a state, with anything over 0.4 representing severe income inequality
as of 2024, the UK has a score of 0.37, the USA has a score of 0.38 (down from 0.41 in 2013) and China has a score of 0.37 (down from 0.42 in 2012)
No, economic globalisation has not reduced global poverty arguments: world systems (dependency) theory
Left-wing globalisation sceptic Immanuel Wallerstein, developed his ‘world systems’ theory arguing that globalisation locks developing countries into a permanent dependency status
Developed (‘core’) countries exploit developing (‘periphery’) countries for materials and labour, leaving the periphery countries dependent on capital from the core.
e.g. the Congo is exploited for its stores of cobalt (used in mobile phones, for example), making it economically dependent on states who buy their materials
Criticisms of homogenisation?
Imposition of Western culture and values/ cultural imperialism
e.g. liberal notions of individualism incompatible with some cultures which emphasise the community instead (e.g. large anti-individualist cultures in East Asia, such as Tibet, South Korea and Taiwan
e.g. Ugandan President Museveni defended his country’s stance on homosexuality by saying, ‘respect African societies and their values. If you don’t agree, just keep quiet’.
Implications of spread of capitalist consumerism, including exploitation and environmental destruction
e.g. Nestle profited from child labour
e.g. Coca-Cola, Pepsi and Nestle named world’s worst plastic polluters in 2020
Rise of the ‘McWorld’’ has destroyed local industry - fast food chains dominate global high streets (at the expense of local cuisines), some traditional crafts and products replaced by global brands (e.g. western clothing brands like H&M, Levi’s and Nike have become the global norm)
What is homogenisation?
The spread of (typically western) culture, customs and values around the world resulting in a ‘flattening out’ of cultural diversity
Factors contributing to economic and political globalisation?
Internet
Free trade
Political developments (e.g. end of Cold War saw communism retreat in influence so many states began to open up to the global economy)
How does R2P explicitly challenge state sovereignty?
Makes state sovereignty conditional on the ensuring that said state does not commit human rights abuses
e.g. NATO bombing of Kosovo in 1999
What convention enshrines the concept that states determine civil liberties?
Westphalian principles (realists agree, liberals disagree that rights are relative in this way)
Strengths of the UNDHR
Provides a standard of human rights accountability by which the international community can judge states (e.g. Human Rights Watch uses UNDHR to measure extent of rights abuses)
Sets out a set of civil, political, social and religious rights
e.g. Article 18 - freedom of conscience and religion, Article 21 - the right to democratic involvement
Weaknesses of the UNDHR?
Not hard international law since states are not obligated to obey it
Examples of states changing laws to conform to ECtHR rulings
1982 - Northern Ireland decriminalised male homosexual sex after their previous law was ruled to be in violation of the ECHR
1999 - UK recognised rights of gay people to serve in the military due to ECHR ruling
How many judgements did the ECHR deliver in 2016?
993 (including 222 against Russia and 77 against Turkey)
How has the internet’s globalisation of information impacted human rights?
Human rights abuses can be instantly published and seen all over the world (e.g. account ‘eye.on.palestine’ on instagram posts information about human rights abuses in Gaza to be seen by its almost 13 million followers all over the world)
Global pressure groups, like Human Rights Watch and Amnesty have used the instant news provided by the internet to publicise atrocities to hold governments to account (e.g. Human Rights Watch has recently published reports on the conflict in Gaza, abortion rights in Ecuador and racial profiling in France)
Explain how UN war crimes tribunals impact human rights?
1993 - UNSC established the ‘International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia’ to deal with war crimes that took place during the Balkan conflict
More of these tribunals followed to investigate human rights abuses in Cambodia (1997), Rwanda (1997) and Sierra Leone (2002)
Statistics to show successful of UN tribunals
Yugoslavia - 83 war criminals sentenced
Cambodia - 3 life sentences secured (e.g. of Nuon Chea, chief political ideologist of the Khmer Rouge government)
Rwanda - convicted 61 people of complicity in genocide (e.g. former PM Jean Kambanda, first head of government to be convicted on charges of genocide)
Sierra Leone - conviction of Liberian President Charles Taylor for complicity in war crimes
How has the ICC impacted human rights?
Established by the Rome Statute in 2002, the ICC is a permanent body prepared to try all those indicted for either war crimes or crimes against humanity
As of 2023, 123 states recognise the authority of the court
It has so far issued 10 convictions (e.g. Germain Katanga, a Congolese warlord, was sentenced to 12 years for atrocities committed during Congo’s civil war)
In what ways has the ECHR failed?
Member states may ‘derogate’ from the ECHR in public emergencies
e.g. in UK judges can only issue ‘declarations of incompatibility’, there is nothing to force Parliament to change the law (e.g. prisoners’ votes)
e.g. Putin publicly asserted the primacy of Russian domestic law over ECHR in 2016
What do liberals claim about the impact of globalisation on conflict?
Reduces it - Kantian peace triangle
Examples of post-cold war idealism (as an example of globalisation tackling conflict)
Somalia (1992)
Bosnia (1995)
Kosovo (1999)
Sierra Leone (2000)
East Timor (2000)
Examples of interventionism (globalisation and conflict)
Following the First Gulf War in 1991, UN Resolution 688 condemned Hussein’s actions, leading to the US and UK establishing ‘no fly zones’
In 1999, NATO bombed Serbia to stop the ethnic cleansing being carried out in Kosovo
What did Tony Blair say, suggesting that globalisation can impact conflict resolution?
Mass murder cannot be a ‘purely internal matter’ - an international response is needed, facilitated by globalisation
Examples of humanitarianism (globalisation and conflict)
UN Peacekeepers intervened in East Timor from 1999
UK provided humanitarian aid in Sierra Leone in 2000
How has globalisation failed to resolve conflict? (decline of humanitarian interventionism)
Some hoped that a more globalised world would prioritise humanitarian intervention or that the UN would promote a global respect for human rights. However, this has not been the case
e.g no humanitarian intervention in Chechnya, where approximately 160,000 lives were lost in the fight for independence
e.g. 800,000 Tutsis were killed during the 1994 genocide - no adequate response from UN
How has globalisation failed to solve conflict? (failing of intervention)
Significant failures have undermined the case for humanitarian interventionism
e.g. NATO help topple Gaddafi, but left Libya in a state of anarchy
e.g. 2003 Iraq War (approx half a million died) - challenged both the justification (as US and UK invaded for seemingly strategic reasons) and effectiveness of interventionism
Evidence of coca-colonisation/’commodity fetishism’
The most popular attraction for Chinese tourists in the UK outside of London is Bicester Shopping Village
Global adulation of brands like Nike, Apple, Microsoft etc…
Evidence of a ‘global marketplace’ in which globalisation has created a more globally diverse culture
Japanese manga and anime have a global audience, as does K-Pop
In Russia, the most popular television show in 2015 was Sherlock (made in the UK)
Chelsea United FC has a strong following in Latin America
In 1960, there were 500 Indian restaurants in the UK. In 2016, there were 9,500
Is globalisation just Americanization? (in terms of culture) - YES
Top ten most profitable films in history are American (e.g. Avatar and Titanic)
Top ten restaurant chains globally are American-led (e.g. McDonald’s and KFC)
20% of the world’s population drink a Coca-Cola product every day
Is globalisation just Americanization? (in terms of economy) - YES
The USA is the dominant global economy, representing 23.8% of global GDP in 2019
The World Bank, IMF and WTO have all advanced the interests of the Washington consensus (e.g. SAPs)
Is globalisation just Americanization? (in terms of politics) - YES
US principles of liberal democracy were hugely influential in the collapse pf Communist power in Russia and eastern Europe
US global troop deployments are unparalleled - a total of 160,000 troops are stationed throughout the world
Is globalisation just Americanization? (in terms of culture) - NO
The internet provides an even playing field for other countries to attain global outreach (e.g. South Korean artists like PSY and BTS have dominated YouTube)
Rival news channels like RT and Al Jazeera are challenging the influence of CNN
Is globalisation just Americanization? (in terms of economy) - NO
Economic globalisation has led to China becoming the biggest global investor in other countries through its Belt and Road Initiative
The AIIB is designed to challenge the influence of the West in the developing world
Is globalisation just Americanization? (in terms of politics) - NO
Trump’s commitment to ‘America first’ and withdrawal from the TPP reduces the USA’s influence in global affairs
Political influence damaged by Iraq War, Guantanamo Bay etc…
Has globalisation created a ‘McWorld’?
Yes - American products dominate global brand culture, coca-colonisation creates a ‘race to the bottom’ in terms of cultural preferences, internet reinforcing global monoculture by creating a worldwide audience for celebrities, trends and products
No - globalisation has created cultural diversity, backlash against globalisation refuses the McWorld
What do liberals think about globalisation?
See it as encouraging cooperation, thereby creating trust between states
Dell Theory of conflict resolution - the way in which economic globalisation has opened up a truly global market is a limiting factor for future conflicts
Advance of regionalism challenging nationalism, so less tensions between states as there is less incentive for egotistical power maximisation
Embrace globalisation as a method of enhancing common humanity (socialist link)
See rights and freedoms and intrinsic (liberalism) so would welcome political and human rights globalisation
How do realists see globalisation?
See states as primary actors - sceptical about how globalisation can challenge this
States should pursue its own interests - it is idealistic and self-defeating to pretend that we all have common interests
Disagree that liberal cooperation works (e.g. sceptical of global human rights protections, regionalism etc… as they challenge the principles of the Westphalian state system)
Realists are less ideologically aligned to free trade than liberals as they argue that the state should advance their own economic interests (e.g. Trump’s protectionism, withdrawing from TPP etc to protect US workers)
Different theories about the extent of globalisation?
Hyper-globalisers
Globalisation sceptics
Transformationalists
In what ways has globalisation challenged the nation state?
Economic globalisation
Intergovernmentalism
Regionalism
The internet
NGOs
What do hyper-globalisers claim about the extent of globalisation?
Globalisation is a revolutionary shift in the structures of global power, which will eventually make the model of ‘nation-state’ obsolete
Centrality of the nation-state increasingly challenged (greater economic integration, instantaneous global communication, the growing influence of non-state actors like TNCs and NGOs etc…)
A ‘borderless’ world is being created in which we are closer to a system of world government
Philip Bobbitt - state being ‘hollowed out’ by globalisation
What do globalisation sceptics claim about the extent of globalisation?
Sceptical that globalisation has really challenged the authority of the state
Globalisation has happened before (e.g. dramatic advances in telegraphic communication between 1870 and 1913) However, these developments did not undermine state sovereignty. In fact, rival nationalisms provoked the outbreak of WW1
We have not seen full economic integration, as the interests of nation states are still considered (e.g. breakdown of Doha Round of WTO negotiations, Trump withdrawing from TPP)
What do transformationalists claim about the extent of globalisation?
Acknowledge that globalisation has had a deep impact on state sovereignty (e.g. new stakeholders like TNCs IGOs and NGOs challenge nation states)
Do not think that globalisation signals the decline of the nation state, rather that the nation state must adapt (e.g. regional bodies like ASEAN and the EU and economic bodies like the World Bank and the IMF have challenged state sovereignty, yet the nation state has retained its primacy and uses its sovereignty as a negotiating tool
States retain the right to determine fiscal, trade and monetary policy (e.g. Trump’s withdrawal from TPP)
States’ sovereign authority may even be enhanced by globalisation (e.g. China’s rise can be attributed to globalisation)
The internet, as well as creating a global marketplace of ideas, can also enforce nationalist ideology (e.g. RT)
How has economic globalisation challenged the nation state?
Economic integration means states cannot insulate themselves from global financial crises (e.g. 2008)
The rise of TNCs has impacted the way states shape their fiscal policy (e.g. Ireland’s 12.5% corporation tax)
Global consensus of economic liberalism restricts governments’ freedom of action as they need to adopt policies of low regulation (e.g. in Cambodia there is little to no regard for workers’ rights)
(however, states ultimately are in control of their financial policy)
How has intergovernmentalism challenged the nation state?
Member states have to adopt WTO judgements
IMF and World Bank impose conditions on recipient states
UN war crimes tribunals (e.g. putting heads of state like Jean Kambanda on trial for complicity in genocide) and the ICC
UN monitoring bodies like IAEA
(however, ICC not recognised)
In what ways have regional organisations challenged the nation state?
Impacted state sovereignty by transferring decision-making powers
EU most advanced e.g. of this - 4/6 institutions are supranational, ECJ rulings binding, ECB sets common interest rates for Eurozone members
Other regional organisations like ASEAN, USMCA and Mercosur have imposed free-trade rules on their members
(however, Brexit)
How has the internet challenged the nation state?
Compromises states’ physical borders
Access to anti-government websites and organisation of power on social media led to Arab Spring uprisings
Radicalisation through the internet challenges integrity of state borders
Cyber terrorism making physical borders less relevant to a state’s survival
How have NGOs challenged the nation state?
Transnational influence
Rise of global pressure groups like Human Rights Watch are playing an increasingly key role in global issues
Celebrities also now influential (Angelina Jolie = UN Special Envoy for Refugees and has addressed the UNSC on the Syrian refugee crisis)
Global foundations like the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the Clinton Foundation have played a huge role in fighting poverty
Examples to show the limits of liberal ‘interconnectedness’
UN is based on the principle of ‘sovereign equality’
P5 have permanent vetoes
Success of agreements (e.g. Paris) depend on nation states’ commitment to fulfil them
In the EU, member states retain the right to veto on key issues like foreign policy and taxation (+ Article 50 of T of Lisbon)
Trump unilaterally withdrew from TPP
Examples to show that the state retains ultimate policy-making power
National governments determine fiscal policy (e.g. Trump’s radical tax cuts, Truss’ mini-budget)
Immigration and foreign policy implemented at a national level (e.g. Trump placed an indefinite ban on Syrian refugees in 2017 and established a 90-day suspension on anyone arriving from 7 predominately Muslim countries)
The state can police the internet (e.g. Chinese ‘firewall’ implemented by the Chinese Ministry of Culture)
Russia has banned ‘undesirable’ NGOs from operating in the country
States crucial in financial agreements (e.g. £30 billion worth of contracts negotiated between China and the UK)
Examples to show states have ultimate power over their national borders
Liberals predicted that globalisation would reduce significance of state borders - has not happened
US Department for Homeland Security established in 2002, with more than 240,000 employees
Schengen agreement challenged by Syrian refugee crisis (12 EU countries have built fences on sections of their borders, e.g. Spain)
Examples to show that states continue to be the main arbiters of human rights
States determine extent of rights granted to their citizens
e.g. ‘Asian values’ (such as in Taiwan and South Korea) prioritise the community over individual rights
Muslim countries use the Qu’ran to inform human rights
Museveni - ‘Respect African societies and their values. If you don’t like it, just keep quiet’
No uniform pattern of rights (as liberals had hoped) - e.g. death penalty legal in the US but not within the EU, the West has liberalised its views on homosexuality, yet it is still illegal in a third of the world’s countries
Examples of the limits of international law (not challenging nation state model)
China refused to join ICC arguing that it was an attempt to ‘interfere with the domestic affairs of a sovereign region’
Trump - ‘no legitimacy, no jurisdiction and no authority’
In theory, ICJ rulings are binding (but Israel has consistently ignored rulings that the wall separating Israel from Palestinian territories is illegal)
No international action taken against India and Pakistan, who retracted their obligations to the NPT
GWB - ‘International law? I’d better call my lawyer - he didn’t bring that up to me’
Examples to show that national allegiance is still too strong for the nation state model to be challenged
Nation-state loyalty remains incredibly potent (despite liberal predictions)
Trump’s emphasis of ‘the American people’
Rise of right-wing populism - France (National Rally), Germany (AfD), Hungary (Orban)
Independence movements in places like Scotland, Palestine and the Basque region show how important nationhood is to those who do not have it
Examples of state egoism showing that the model of the nation state is still relevant
States still act out of sovereign self-interest
e.g. invasion of Iraq in 2003 annexation of Crimea in 2014, invasion of Ukraine in 2022
Increasing militarism - China increasing military presence in South China Sea
Proves realist notion that states are ‘power maximisers’
Recent example of backlash against cultural globalisation?
French nationalist party, the National Front, has gained so much popularity in France that its success in the European Parliament elections pressured Macron into calling a snap election
Benefit of cultural globalisation: diversity
All societies have become more diverse as a result of the emergence of a globalised cultural marketplace. Western societies have been influenced by non-Western religions, food, medicines, therapeutic practices (such as acupuncture, yoga, Buddhist meditation) and sports (such as judo and karate).
Benefits of cultural globalisation: ‘glocalisation’
Cultural globalisation can be adapted to local circumstances and even strengthen local cultures (coined ‘glocalisation’ by Roland Robertson). Western consumer goods and images have been absorbed into traditional cultural practices (e.g. Bollywood film industry)
e.gs of work of UN agencies
Agencies include the WHO (eradication of smallpox and near eradication of polio globally, coordinated global response to Ebola and Zika virus crises)
IAEA (monitors states’ fulfilment of the NPT)
UNICEF (has coordinated child immunisation programmes in the developing world)
WFP (provided food relief to 76.7 million people in 81 countries in 2015)
In what ways has the ICC failed?
Authority undermined by the fact that 3/5 of the UNSC (China, Russia, USA) have refused to accept the ICC’s jurisdiction
American Service Members’ Protection Act (2000) states that the US government can use ‘all means necessary’ to free its servicemen if the ICC detains them
Trump - the ICC has ‘no jurisdiction, no legitimacy and no authority’
Russia withdrew as soon as the ICC claimed that its annexation of Crimea was illegal
Some leaders like Sudan’s Omar al-Bashir and Kenya’s Uhuru Kenyatta have ignored indictments to attend the ICC
