Political and Economic Governance COPY Flashcards

Question

Explain the function of the UNSC

Answer 1

It is the UN's executive committee, responsible for peace and security, and for passing binding resolutions It has five permanent members and 10 non-permanent members chosen by regional quotas

Answer 2

Acts as the UN's Parliament. Every member state can participate in debates and is represented equally. Its annual meetings allow world leaders to address the UN and there are often votes on major issues (e.g. in 2012, there was a vote about granting Palestine observer status)

Answer 3

Makes judgements principally on territorial disputes between states

Answer 4

Responsible for economic security and development. Made up of 54 member states, elected by the UNGA for two-year terms Oversees the work of the WHO and UNICEF

Answer 5

Stop war Advance human rights Social progress

Answer 6

Global forum Equal representation Promotes dialogue between states (thus reducing risk of conflict) Expertise

Answer 7

Represents states, not people 'Rewards' dictatorship Merely a 'talking shop'

Answer 8

Global forum for the solving of global issues - it is a space in which problems affecting multiple countries can be discussed e.g. 31st UNGA special session on the coronavirus pandemic gathered state representatives to discuss how to tackle the economic, social and political fallout of the virus Proof of effectiveness? - no state has ever permanently withdrawn from the Assembly (Indonesia did so briefly in 1965 but came back the next year)

Answer 9

One vote per state regardless of population size or economic/military/political power Encourages participation from smaller states and ensures their voices can be heard - it is not possible for powerful states to veto resolutions and they can be outvoted by developing states e.g. the Group of 77 (a coalition of developing states) was instrumental in passing the resolution against the apartheid regime in South Africa and continues to be fundamental in supporting initiatives towards global disarmament and demilitarisation

Answer 10

Promotion of dialogue reduces the chance of conflict Provides an outlet for verbal, diplomatic sparring, allowing states to communicate their frustrations in a non-violent manner Even where dialogue is not particularly constructive (e.g. Khrushchev banging his shoe on a table while denouncing the Filipino delegate as a 'toady of American imperialism' in 1960), this is still better than war Number of interstate wars has fallen dramatically since 1945

Answer 11

Each state gets a single vote regardless of population size e.g. at an extreme, it is possible for states representing only 5% of the world to be able to pass a vote on an important issue because the global population is so unevenly distributed (undemocratic?) UNGA provides forum for state governments to debate and vote based on their interests without any representation for oppressed minorities within states (e.g. Uyghur Muslims in China, LGBT people in Russia)

Answer 12

State governments decide who they want to send as delegates to the Assembly and instructs them on how to vote - this 'rewards' dictatorship as an autocratic state is able to cast a vote in the UN on behalf of all their citizens, regardless of whether or not these citizens have democratically consented to their rule This leads to despotic regimes being able to play a key role in shaping global policy e.g. Saudi leadership of the UN Human Rights Commission (a sub-body of the UNGA) in 2015, despite the state having beheaded more people than ISIS that year

Answer 13

UNGA resolutions are not binding Criticism of it being a talking shop as the same issues are debated over and over again without any progress e.g. Israel has been condemned in 45 resolutions for activities such as illegal settlement-building in Palestinian territories - yet there have been no moves towards peace in the region, nor any tangible attempt to hold Israel to account Kofi Annan (former Secretary-General) criticised the UNGA for its 'watered down' resolutions

Answer 14

Disarmament and International Security Committee Economic and Financial Committee Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee

Answer 15

The UNGA committees are a means of streamlining the work of the assembly into focused committees, providing expertise on particular matters In a year, each committee will submit as many as 60 recommendations for the UNGA to consider e.g. in 2015, the UNGA adopted the recommendations of the Economic and Financial Committee on cooperation with middle-income countries e.g. in 2015, the UNGA adopted the recommendation of the Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee regarding the rights of migrants

Answer 16

Provides a forum to tackle the issues of health and mortality Particular focuses for the WHO include diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis and AIDs as well as research into issues like antibiotic resistance Biggest successes of the WHO - eradication of smallpox through a vaccination and education programme and the eradication of all polio in all but 3 countries (Pakistan, Nigeria and Afghanistan - areas in which WHO workers were attacked) 59% reduction in child mortality and 44% reduction in maternal mortality due to WHO initiatives

Answer 17

Chronically underfunded, which limits its efficiency (relies on private donors like Bill Gates, who provides 9.4% of WHO funding through his foundation) Allegations of inefficiency - criticised for incompetency during the 2013-15 Ebola epidemic in West Africa Cannot impose binding directives on member states

Answer 18

Upholds international law Genuine neutrality Gives states a way to 'back down'

Answer 19

Jurisdiction is conditional Unenforceable rulings Inability to solve intra-state conflicts

Answer 20

Principal institution which upholds the concept of 'international law' by arbitrating disputes between states according to established principles and conventions Involves conflict resolution (e.g. 2018 case regarding activities by Nicaragua along the border of Costa Rica) but also the regulation of issues like applying the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea e.g. in 2002 the Court determined the land and maritime boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria

Answer 21

The 15 judges are required to be independent and neutral by the Articles 16-18 of the ICJ Statute If a case involves the state of a judge on the ICJ, then the other state may select an additional 'ad hoc' judge to balance any possible bias in judgement The representation of states of varying levels of power (e.g. current President is Nawaf Salam, who is Lebanese) means that most states perceive the Court as genuinely neutral e.g. of its perceived neutrality making its decisions seem more legitimate - ICJ rejected a claim by Bolivia against Chile for coastal land lost in 1883 and Bolivia accepted the judgement as one made by a neutral body

Answer 22

States may not want to back down in disagreements as it implies a loss of prestige and respect - ICJ rulings provide a way for states to respectably draw back from conflict e.g. Nationalist tensions between Thailand and Cambodia about a 900-year-old temple (Preah Vihear) defused by an ICJ ruling, preventing conflict in the region

Answer 23

ICJ jurisdiction only applies when both states have agreed to abide by a ruling e.g. in 2018, Iran brought a case against the USA about sanctions imposed upon them. The ICJ ruled in Iran's favour and issued an order for the USA to lift the sanctions, so the USA simply refused on the grounds that they had not agreed to ICJ jurisdiction

Answer 24

No formal mechanisms for the enforcement of its rulings (especially true in the case of powerful states who are able to veto UNSC resolutions) e.g. despite a ruling in 2016 that China does not have a right to sovereignty in the South China Sea, China has continued to build its naval bases and military presence in the region

Answer 25

ICJ can only solve conflicts between states. It has no jurisdiction to intervene in a state's internal affairs Renders it powerless to deal with many disputes and conflicts including civil wars/disputes of independence (such as Catalan independence from Spain), any intra-state genocide (such as within Sudan and Myanmar) or human rights abuses (such as in Russia) ICJ has proven itself unable to deal with the crises of today

Answer 26

Treaty of Rome (formed EEC) (1957) ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement (1992) Kyoto Protocol (1997) Rome Statute (formed ICC) (1998)

Answer 27

Allow states to form agreements on any issue, ranging from the environment to world health Targeted and specific, which allows states to retain control over their sovereignty by picking and choosing which agreements suit their national interests Represent formal international law, increasing likelihood of accountability

Answer 28

States can choose whether or not to sign up to them (3/5 UNSC members have not ratified the Rome Statute) and can leave at any time (North Korea on the NPT)

Answer 29

A collective military security agreement that was signed at the start of the Cold War (1949), with the aim of protecting its members from the threat of military (especially nuclear) attack from the Soviet Union

Answer 30

An attack on one member shall be regarded as an attack on all member states

Answer 31

Only once, when NATO allies indicated their support for the USA after the 9/11 attacks

Answer 32

Founded in 1949 by the signing of the Washington Treaty and originally had 12 members (the USA, Canada and 10 states from western Europe)

Answer 33

32 (most recent addition is Sweden)

Answer 34

To provide collective security against the threat of the Soviet bloc and to promote deeper political integration and stability in Europe

Answer 35

Its original purpose, according to Lord Ismay (NATO's first secretary-general) was 'to keep the Russians out, the Americans in and the Germans down'

Answer 36

The Warsaw Pact was formed in 1955 as a rival collective security organisation comprised of the USSR and 7 of its puppet states

Answer 37

Involvement beyond Europe Growth and expansion into Eastern Europe (and the implications for peace and stability)

Answer 38

The end of the Cold War brought about an existential threat for NATO However, NATO was still committed to fighting militant nationalism in Europe, as well as promoting democracy and political integration

Answer 39

NATO's primary role was collective security in Europe - however, changing political context challenged this Only time Article 5 invoked was after 9/11 - Afghanistan invasion NATO took control of the International Security Assistance Force to provide peaceful conditions in which democracy could flourish NATO maintained a presence in the country from 2003 to 2014

Answer 40

NATO's military personnel suffered considerable casualties (more than 2000 US and 400 UK personnel were killed). People questioned how NATO troops serving and dying in Afghanistan helped the national interests of the member states Civilians were killed, particularly in airstrikes (e.g. the bombing of a wedding party by a US air raid in 2008). Not only did this cause intense suffering, it also caused tensions between NATO and the Afghan government

Answer 41

Initial role of NATO - collective security to ultimately bring about peace Has expanded into former Soviet bloc countries - 10 former Warsaw Pact members have joined This arguably has negative implications for peace and security and NATO can be accused of aggressive expansion - Putin called it 'menacing' Ukraine invasion partly caused by NATO?

Answer 42

Countries bound by shared values of freedom, democracy and rights Has changed with the times and found new ways to serve its members Proven capability in military action

Answer 43

Air campaign against Bosnian Serbs in Kosovo

Answer 44

Dominated by the USA Original purpose redundant? Doesn't actually serve its purpose of maintaining world peace

Answer 45

Using the 2018 “Freedom in the World” index, twenty-six of NATO’s twenty-nine members were rated as “free.” In contrast, only 39 percent of the world’s population lives in countries rated as “free.”

Answer 46

Much bigger expenditure on NATO than any other country (around $860 billion - next highest is Germany with around $68 billion) Only time Article 5 invoked was to support US However, US has sustained significant losses in NATO, so it is not disproportionately dominant

Answer 47

The 2008 financial crisis - this was exactly the type of situation that institutions like the IMF and the World Bank were created to prevent. The crisis was caused by a lack of strict regulations in the global financial system - this was partly due to the neoliberal economic agenda promoted by the Bretton Woods institutions The IMF failed to see the crisis coming (even until April 2007, it was forecasting that 'world growth will continue to be strong')

Answer 48

The G20 summit in 2009 saw states take important decisions to inject capital into their banking systems in order to prevent the collapse of the global banking system (e.g. the UK placed the Royal Bank of Scotland under state ownership and the USA took similar measures with failing banks Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac) The IMF lent up to $700 billion to states most affected by the downturn (esp PIIGS) The World Bank tripled its lending, primarily to middle-income states

Answer 49

The IMF (1947) - established the US dollar as the basis against which all other states' currencies would be valued, stabilising world countries from major fluctuations in their value The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (1946) - later known as the World Bank, it had the aim to provide a pool of investment for middle-income states The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/GATT (1947) - later known as the WTO, it is an international forum in which states can make trade deals and establish international rules on trade

Answer 50

Its initial role was to encourage stability in world exchange rates. It oversaw a system of fixed exchange rates (which broke apart in 1971), meaning that investments were more stable and currency value was less likely to fluctuate.

Answer 51

Provides economic stability by giving financial support or loans to states that are suffering from debt crises. For example, in 1976 the UK borrowed $3.9 million from the IMF. More recently, it bailed out the PIIGS in 2008. It monitors the economic outlook of both the world economy and its individual member countries, including forecasting potential threats. It advises member countries on how to best manage their economies, particularly less developed member countries on which technical expertise may be lacking.

Answer 52

Advises its 189 member states by encouraging policies that foster economic stability, reduce vulnerability to economic and financial crises, and to raise the standard of living. e.g. Lagarde predicted Brexit would lead to increased inflation and reduce the UK's GDP by 5.5.%

Answer 53

A member country may request IMF financial assistance if it suffers, or is likely to suffer from, a debt crisis.

Answer 54

IMF experts can provide training to member states to help them manage their economies more effectively e.g. experts on tax collecting may advise member states about how to implement a fair and effective taxation system The IMF has established Regional Training Centres in Africa to help build expertise in Sub-Saharan African states

Answer 55

Undemocratic Imposition of Western free-trade agenda Failure to perform its function of surveillance

Answer 56

Adaptability Can genuinely help states that are struggling economically

Answer 57

Some has criticised the IMF for being undemocratic - voting power is weighted according to how much each state contributes financially e.g. the IMF requires 85% of votes to make a decision, but the US has 17% of the weighted vote (essentially giving it a veto)

Answer 58

Based on neoliberal values of free trade This is most evident in the SAPs - in order to receive a loan, a state must undergo economic reforms (e.g. cutting wasteful public spending, privatisation, reducing public sector wages) This impacts upon state sovereignty!! These became so controversial that the IMF had to change their name to 'poverty reduction strategies'

Answer 59

South Korea in 1997 - arguably brought it closer to developed states

Answer 60

e.g. pensions cut in Greece (estimated to be worth 25-55% less than at the beginning of the crisis) e.g. 40 million people fell below poverty line in Indonesia due to SAP during Asian Financial Crisis

Answer 61

Most obvious criticism is that it doesn't perform its function of surveillance e.g. 2008 financial crisis!!

Answer 62

Shown itself to be adaptable and flexible in several ways 1971 - when the system of fixed exchange rates ended, the IMF began publishing recommendations on economic policy to guide the world economy 1990 - after the fall of communism, the IMF refocused on debt reduction and economic development to aid the ex-Soviet bloc states 2017 - increased the voting quotas of Brazil, India, Russia and China in response to changes in the global economy Has proven itself fit for purpose in am evolving economic landscape

Answer 63

Focus on capacity building e.g. Regional Training Centres established in Sub-Saharan Africa Played a key role in 'bailing out' the PIIGS - loans to Greece alone totalled $146 billion over 3 years

Answer 64

Providing loans and technical and financial assistance to support reconstruction and development Growing emphasis on sustainability Carries out analytical work on development matters, which is made freely available to states and NGOs working on development

Answer 65

Invested $140 million in 'Higher Education Centres of Excellence' in eastern and southern Africa Provided $700 million for developing renewable energy centres in Ghana, which generate up 40% of Ghana's domestic power Since 2002, the WB has invested over $3.3 billion in development and reconstruction in Afghanistan

Answer 66

Anti-poverty funds Adaptability and sustainability

Answer 67

Promotes economic dependence Corruption Western dominance Ecological damage

Answer 68

In 2016, the WB provided $63 billion in low interest loans to 275 projects in developing states e.g. it has worked with the Arab League to reduce female unemployment, expanded electricity and power supply to countries like Tanzania, funded programmes to extend education in Yemen

Answer 69

Willing to adapt and change its practices to increase the efficacy of its projects e.g. used to focus on grand infrastructure projects like hydroelectric dams but when faced with issues with this approach (like the fact that local technical knowledge to sustain and repair such infrastructure was limited), it changed its focus to development involving local people and organisations e.g. current project to build low-cost schools in Eastern Afghanistan, investment in higher education in eastern and southern Africa

Answer 70

A common conditionality for World Bank loans to developing countries is the rapid growth of crop exports so that they can repay their loans These 'cash crops' are produced to be exported, rather than for domestic consumption e.g. cocoa beans in Cameroon and coffee beans in Ethiopia Causes developing countries to become dependent on the West

Answer 71

Imbalance of voting powers USA carries 16% of voting powers but no other state has more than 5% Every World Bank president (including current President Ajay Banga) has been American Rising powers like Brazil, India and China have less than a third of the voting powers of the USA

Answer 72

Many WB loans have been known to be diverted from their intended purpose - lines the pockets of corrupt government officials e.g. in 2016, officials in the Afghan capital Kabul embezzled $700 million of aid money from the WB e.g. a significant portion of a $30 million loan to Armenia to restore the capital's piping system has gone missing However, not the fault of the WB

Answer 73

Despite WB's recent focus on sustainability, pushing economic development as a condition of loan repayment has caused ecological damage WB invests in projects to generate rapid economic growth which may have negative environmental impacts e.g. coal-fired power plants in South Africa, oil rigs off the coast of Ghana, gold mining in Peru (which contaminates the water supply)

Answer 74

To progressively reduce tariff levels between member states

Answer 75

Relatively democratic Achieved its goal of tariff reduction

Answer 76

Gridlock Inability to compel powerful states Negative externalities

Answer 77

Far more democratic than other global economic institutions Decisions made by a simple majority - each member state has a single vote with equal weight Not overly dominated by Western states - approx. 60% of WTO members are developing states Rules of the WTO collectively written by its member states and its member states elect the leadership

Answer 78

Has successfully reduced trade barriers (down from an average of 22% in 1948 to 5% in 1999), making it easier for states to trade, in turn bringing down the cost of manufactured goods e.g. so-called 'Banana wars' solved by WTO - EU agreed to reduce tariffs on Central American bananas, making bananas cheaper for EU citizens

Answer 79

Gridlock has left the WTO unable to implement any further free trade reform 'Doha round' of negotiations for reducing tariffs began in 2001 but have since stalled over disagreements about issues like agriculture (developing countries reluctant to reduce tariffs on importing external agricultural goods as it puts their farmers at risk)

Answer 80

Possible for states to ignore WTO rulings - unfair 2012 - WTO ruled that US aircraft manufacturer Boeing had received illegal government subsidies (seen as a violation of fair competition and free trade), but the US government continued to provide government subsidies anyway

Answer 81

WTO prioritises free trade above issues like workers' rights, child labour and environmental damage e.g. protest at 2003 WTO meeting in Cancun

Answer 82

Founded in 1975 as an informal forum for governments of advanced economies to have regular correspondence

Answer 83

Effective discussion forum Internal legitimacy Global economic power

Answer 84

Internal divisions Global illegitimacy Unrepresentative membership

Answer 85

Provides a forum where states can discuss common concerns/interests openly Easy to reach policy consensus due to small meetings where member states have similar values e.g. 2016 G7 summit confirmed the G7 Action Plan on Countering Terrorism and Violent Extremism e.g. 2023 G7 summit - member states agreed to provide Ukraine with budget support

Answer 86

The G7 utilises a rotating presidency system on an annual basis. The presidency brings with it the power to direct the agenda for the year’s summit (2024 summit to be under the Presidency of Italy). This prevents any one state from dominating discussions and makes the group more internally democratic and legitimate, contributing to productive discussion

Answer 87

Because of the overwhelming economic power of its member-states, the G7 is able to make important interventions in global economic governance. 1999: Cancellation of $100bn multilateral and bilateral debt owed by developing countries to G8 countries 2005: Doubling aid to Africa and cancelling debts owed by 19 developing countries at the Gleneagles Summit 2008: Key role in coordinating responses to the financial crisis and increasing funding for the IMF 2014: Punished Russia by expelling it from the G8 after it annexed Crimea

Answer 88

There have been some serious divisions within the G7 in the past four years. President Trump argued that other states were ‘exploiting’ the US and responded by imposing steel tariffs on the EU, Canada and Japan). Trump also argued in 2018 and 2019 that Russia should be reinstated to the G7. In 2019, the G7 for the first time ever did not issue a ‘joint communique’ (a common agreement published at the end of the annual summit)

Answer 89

The G7 has been accused of promoting neoliberal economic policy in the interests of developed countries, to the detriment of developing countries and other issues. In particular, the G7 has been unwilling or unable to seriously debate global poverty and climate change e.g. 2016 G7 meeting - leaders reconfirmed the importance of free trade and their commitment to fight protectionism

Answer 90

The G7 is no longer representative of the dominant share of the global economy. In the late-1980s it accounted for nearly 70% of the global economy but today this is 46%, largely because of the rise of states like China, India and Brazil. The exclusion of China, the second-largest economy in the world, limits how influential it can be. Russia ‘walking away’ from the G8 after being sanctioned and suspended in 2014 shows that the G7 is no longer considered the main forum for economic policy discussions. The rise of the G20 (discussed below) has arguably increased the irrelevance of the G7

Answer 91

Formed in 1999 as a means of expanding the G7 to include a wider group of industrialised states and emerging economic powers

Answer 92

Broader membership Forum for discussion

Answer 93

Focal point for anti-capitalist protests Too exclusive Internal divisions

Answer 94

Balance between traditional (e.g. France, UK and USA), newly emerged (e.g. China, Brazil and India) and newly emerging (e.g. Argentina and Indonesia) economic powers Seen as a more legitimate institution of global governance Participation of more states enables it to be more effective in tackling global problems

Answer 95

Like the G7, the G20 can provide a more intimate forum for economic policy discussion than a larger institution like the UN. This has led to some major successes – for example, the free trade deal struck between MERCOSUR (effectively the South American version of the EU) and the EU, announced at the 2019 Osaka Summit after decades of negotiation

Answer 96

Although the G20 is more inclusive than the G7, it still excludes the vast bulk of the world’s 195 countries. Many advanced economies (e.g. Poland, Norway and Singapore) and many developing economies (e.g. Nigeria) have criticised the G20 for excluding them from participation. The G20 often ‘invites’ these states as participant observers, but this isn’t the same as membership

Answer 97

The G20’s broader membership (compared to the G7) also increases the number of possible policy disputes, and therefore limits the efficacy of the institution. For example, the 2020 summit (hosted virtually by Saudi Arabia) was marred by arguments between the EU and Saudi Arabia for their numerous human rights abuses

Answer 98

Absolute poverty - person earns less than $1.25 per day (exclusively economic measure) Relative poverty - compares somebody's income against average income of their country and judges whether people have the minimum income needed to maintain their country's average standard of living (this covers around 10 million people in the UK)

Answer 99

In terms of Maslow's hierarchy of needs - this argues that human beings need to protect their physiological health (e.g. having access to food and water). However, human development is fundamentally limited and incomplete if humans cannot progress through their higher levels of need like esteem (e.g. reducing inequality of income or opportunity) and self-actualisation (e.g. economic empowerment)

Answer 100

Economic growth HDI MPI

Answer 101

Gathering data is difficult in developing countries States can manipulate or withhold information

Answer 102

e.g. China announced in 2021 that it had lifted 100 million people out of poverty since 2012. However, China defines poverty as earning less than about $2.30 a day, but (as China is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank), the poverty line is much higher, at $5.50 per day e.g. countries like Slovakia have historically declined to publish figures

Answer 103

Poorer states face challenges in gathering data 17/35 Sub-Saharan African countries have not held a census in the last 20 years - censuses are crucial in measuring poverty levels as a state's Geni coefficient cannot be measured without accurate population figures Accessing remote communities can be difficult in states suffering from conflict or have poor infrastructure

Answer 104

Most quantitative measure of development Key measures of this are GDP (gross domestic product, which measures all economic activity within a state) and GNP (gross national product, which measures all economic activity by companies and individuals from a particular state) Most basic indicator of positive or negative development is whether a state's economy is growing or shrinking (e.g. in 2017, Venezuela's economy shrank by 13%, whereas China's economy grew by 7%)

Answer 105

Does not take into account political development e.g. China has had high economic growth but a poor record on democracy and human rights Economic growth can be misleading - e.g. in 2008 Pakistan had GDP growth of 7% but required an IMF bailout Does not take into account wealth inequality

Answer 106

Human Development Index - a composite indicator of poverty, meaning it takes into account a range of factors to create a score out of 100 (e.g. highest is Switzerland's score of 0.967, lowest is Somalia with 0.380) Covers indicators of development like life expectancy at birth, education and income

Answer 107

Doesn't factor in income inequality (introduced additional measure in 2010 called 'Inequality-Adjusted Human Development Indicator' - however, data on inequality unavailable for many countries)

Answer 108

Multi-dimensional Poverty Index - used by the UNDP Includes indicators of standards of living like access to drinking water, sanitation and education.

Answer 109

North-South divide World systems theory Impact of globalisation Impact of colonialism

Answer 110

Yes, cause of poverty: Global North had a headstart (hugely influential in asserting global neoliberal agenda through BW institutions), MNCs based in global North exploit Global South for cheap labour and natural resources) No, some global south states catching up: many global south states have successfully industrialised, especially the Pacific Rim countries like Brazil, Malaysia and the Philippines. States in the global south included more in economic governance institutions like G20

Answer 111

Left-wing globalisation sceptic Immanuel Wallerstein, developed his ‘world systems’ theory arguing that globalisation locks developing countries into a permanent dependency status Developed (‘core’) countries exploit developing (‘periphery’) countries for materials and labour, leaving the periphery countries dependent on capital from the core. e.g. the Congo is exploited for its stores of cobalt (used in mobile phones, for example), making it economically dependent on states who buy their materials

Answer 112

Economic globalisation has arguably benefitted richer countries and left the poorer countries behind States are increasingly vulnerable to economic downturns that occur outside their borders e.g. as 97% of Angola's total exports come from oil, it is heavily dependent on the stability of global oil markets

Answer 113

When states gained independence, they had little experience of self-government Borders drawn up arbitrarily - created conflicts (which cause poverty) e.g. dispute between India and Pakistan over Kashmir (could counter this by saying colonialism brought infrastructure and rule of law)

Answer 114

Modernisation theory Neoliberalism

Answer 115

Developed by US economist Rostow and suggests that states need to work their way through several stages of growth (traditional society, preconditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity and age of high mass consumption) Criticised for being far too Western-focused and not taking into account the fact that developing states cannot catch up in a similar way

Answer 116

Urges laissez-faire economics to stimulate economic development (e.g. through free trade, tax reform and deregulation) (Called into question by 2008 financial crisis, as well as concerns about excessive greed/bankers' bonuses)

Answer 117

UN NATO Treaties (nuclear weapons)

Answer 118

Nine - the US, the UK, France, China, Russia, Pakistan, India, Israel and North Korea

Answer 119

The 1968 Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Treaty, which aims to stop states from acquiring nuclear weapons and to persuade nuclear powers to disarm

Answer 120

South Africa gave up its nuclear weapons when it signed the NPT Since the 1980s, only one state (North Korea) has successfully developed nuclear weapons

Answer 121

Has not persuaded nuclear powers to disarm - in February 2017, Donald Trump announced his desire to increase the USA's nuclear capabilities. In March 2017, the USA led over 40 countries in a boycott of UN negotiations to ban nuclear weapons

Answer 122

In October 2023, the Russian government agreed a withdrawal of its ratification of the CTBT In 2019, the US pulled out of the INF (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty), which banned intercontinental nuclear weapons The CTBT has not entered into force as 8 of the 44 Annex-2 states (whose signatures are required for the treaty to enter into force) have not ratified the treaty. These include the US, China, Pakistan and North Korea

Answer 123

The United Nations (UN) has 193 Member States, which have grown from the original 51 in 1945. All UN Member States are members of the General Assembly. States are admitted to membership by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. The only two non-member states are the Holy See (Vatican City) and Palestine, which are assigned the status of permanent observers of UN proceedings for political and religious reasons2. Learn more:

Answer 124

The U.S. contributes significantly to NATO's defence budget, having contributed $21.9 trillion over the past 75 years. It allocates almost twice as much of its GDP as the rest of the members, making up two thirds of the total NATO defence expenditures.

Answer 125

NATO has 32 members from Europe and North America Most recently, Finland and Sweden have joined, in April 2023 and and March 2024 respectively.